Neurodiversity Movement Identification and Perceived Appropriateness of Terms Used to Describe Autism

Authors

Abstract

Background: Autism terminology is highly controversial. The debate regarding person-first and identity-first language is particularly well-studied, but the present study explores views on different terms commonly used to describe autism, such as “disorder,” “disability,” and “difference.” Furthermore, unlike prior studies, this study explores how terminology views are related to identification with the neurodiversity movement (NDM). Methods: We collected usable survey data from 475 participants, 271 of whom were autistic and 204 of whom were non-autistic interested parties (e.g., family members, professionals). Participants rated perceived appropriateness of 13 terms as descriptors of autism. They also indicated whether they had heard of neurodiversity and the social model; if yes, they respectively completed a brief measure of NDM identification and/or answered an item rating support for the social model. Results: Overall, participants rated the terms “condition,” “developmental,” “disability,” “difference,” “neurodiverse,” “neurodivergent,” “neurominority,” and “neurotype” as more appropriate than neutral, whereas “deficit,” “disorder,” “illness,” “psychopathology,” and “syndrome” were seen as inappropriate. As participants identified more strongly with the NDM, they rated the terms “neurodiverse,” “neurodivergent,” “neurominority,” and “neurotype” as more appropriate; however, they rated “condition,” “deficit,” “disorder,” “illness,” and “syndrome” as less appropriate. In non-autistic people only, perceived appropriateness of “developmental” decreased with increasing neurodiversity identification. In autistic participants only, perceived appropriateness of “disability” increased with greater neurodiversity identification. Conclusion: Both autistic and non-autistic participants in this study robustly preferred neurodiversity-aligned terms, such as “neurodivergent” and “difference,” to traditional terms assuming pathology and deficiency. Participants also generally approved of the term “disability,” particularly autistic participants identifying with the NDM, aligning with the NDM’s recognition of both autism-related strengths and challenges. Although we cannot rule out sample bias, our data suggest an emerging consensus supporting discussion of autism in positive or neutrally descriptive ways or through acknowledging challenges in a nonderogatory manner.

1. Jean‐Guy A. Goulet (2001). Denendeh: anthropologists, politics and ethnicity in the reorganization of the Canadian Northwest Territories . Institutional Repositories DataBase (IRDB), 56(56), 151-161.

   Type: Article DOI: 10.15021/00002810 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W216456031

   Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
2. Nancy Bagatell (2007). Orchestrating voices: autism, identity and the power of discourse . Disability & Society, 22(4), 413-426. Informa UK Limited.

   Type: Article DOI: 10.1080/09687590701337967 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2035465080

   Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
3. Connor Tom Keating , Lydia Hickman , Joan Leung , Ruth Monk *Autistic author. Learn more… , Alicia Montgomery , Hannah Heath et al. (2023). Autism‐related language preferences of English‐speaking individuals across the globe: a mixed methods investigation . Autism Res, 16(2), 406-428. Wiley.

   Type: Article DOI: 10.1002/aur.2864 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4311669372

   AutiHub · Autistic Autism Scholarship Project Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
4. Yoav Benjamini , Daniel Yekutieli (2001). The control of the false discovery rate in multiple testing under dependency . The Annals of Statistics, 29(4). Institute of Mathematical Statistics.

   Type: Article DOI: 10.1214/aos/1013699998 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W1596515083

   Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
5. Simon Bury , Rachel Jellett , Jennifer R. Spoor , Darren Hedley (2023). “It Defines Who I Am” or “It’s Something I Have”: What Language Do [Autistic] Australian Adults [on the Autism Spectrum] Prefer? Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 53(2), 677-687. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.

   Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10803-020-04425-3 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3007056653

   Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
6. Jacky (Manidoomakwakwe) Ellis (2023). Imagining Neurodivergent Futures from the Belly of the Identity Machine: Neurodiversity, Biosociality, and Strategic Essentialism . Autism in Adulthood, 5(3), 225-235. SAGE Publications.

   Type: Article DOI: 10.1089/aut.2021.0075 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4313462048

   Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
7. Michelle R. Nario-Redmond , Jeffrey G. Noel , Emily Fern (2013). Redefining Disability, Re-imagining the Self: Disability Identification Predicts Self-esteem and Strategic Responses to Stigma . Self and Identity, 12(5), 468-488. Informa UK Limited.

   Type: Article DOI: 10.1080/15298868.2012.681118 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W1972118986

   Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
8. Rosalind Cooper , Kate Cooper , Ailsa Russell , Laura G. E. Smith (2021). “I’m Proud to be a Little Bit Different”: The Effects of Autistic Individuals’ Perceptions of Autism and Autism Social Identity on Their Collective Self-esteem . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 51(2), 704-714. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.

   Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10803-020-04575-4 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3036418460

   Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
9. Amanda Taboas , Karla Doepke , Corinne Zimmerman (2023). Preferences for identity-first versus person-first language in a US sample of autism stakeholders . Autism, 27(2), 565-570. SAGE Publications.

   Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/13623613221130845 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4306157884

   Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
10. Birk Diedenhofen , Jochen Musch (2015). cocor: A Comprehensive Solution for the Statistical Comparison of Correlations . PLoS ONE, 10(4), e0121945. Public Library of Science (PLoS).

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0121945 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W1981244178

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
11. Daniel E. Martínez , Kelsey E. Gonzalez (2021). “Latino” or “Hispanic”? The Sociodemographic Correlates of Panethnic Label Preferences among U.S. Latinos/Hispanics . Sociological Perspectives, 64(3), 365-386. SAGE Publications.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/0731121420950371 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3081000981

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
12. Kaitlin H. Koffer Miller , Dylan S. Cooper , Wei Song , Lindsay Shea (2022). Self-reported service needs and barriers reported by autistic adults: Differences by gender identity . Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 92, 101916. Elsevier BV.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/j.rasd.2022.101916 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4211141648

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
13. Debbie Braybrook , Katherine Bristowe , Liadh Timmins , Anna Roach , Elizabeth Day , Paul Clift et al. (2023). Communication about sexual orientation and gender between clinicians, LGBT+ people facing serious illness and their significant others: a qualitative interview study of experiences, preferences and recommendations . BMJ Quality & Safety, 32(2), 109-120. BMJ.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1136/bmjqs-2022-014792 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4294307824

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
14. Melissa Maye , Brian A. Boyd , Frances Martínez-Pedraza , Alycia Halladay , Audrey Thurm , DAVID S. MANDELL (2022). Biases, barriers, and possible solutions: Steps towards addressing autism researchers’ under-engagement with racially, ethnically, and socioeconomically diverse communities . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 52(9), 4206. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10803-021-05250-y OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3199775238

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
15. Géraldine Dawson (2008). Early behavioral intervention, brain plasticity, and the prevention of autism spectrum disorder . Development and Psychopathology, 20(3), 775-803. Cambridge University Press (CUP).

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1017/s0954579408000370 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2116697664

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
16. Heather M. Brown *Autistic author. Learn more… , Aubyn C. Stahmer , Patrick Dwyer *Autistic author. Learn more… , Susan M. Rivera (2021). Changing the story: How diagnosticians can support a neurodiversity perspective from the start . Autism, 25(5), 1171-1174. SAGE Publications.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/13623613211001012 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3179878545

    AutiHub · Autistic Autism Scholarship Project Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
17. Steven K. Kapp *Autistic author. Learn more… , Kristen Gillespie-Lynch , Lauren E. Sherman , Ted Hutman (2013). Deficit, difference, or both? Autism and neurodiversity. Developmental Psychology, 49(1), 59-71. American Psychological Association (APA).

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1037/a0028353 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2124715426

    AutiHub · Autistic Autism Scholarship Project Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
18. Patrick Dwyer *Autistic author. Learn more… (2022). Stigma, Incommensurability, or Both? Pathology-First, Person-First, and Identity-First Language and the Challenges of Discourse in Divided Autism Communities . Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics, 43(2), 111-113. Ovid Technologies (Wolters Kluwer Health).

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1097/dbp.0000000000001054 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4206529449

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
19. Alison Singer , Amy Lutz , Jill Escher , Alycia Halladay (2023). A full semantic toolbox is essential for autism research and practice to thrive . Autism Research, 16(3), 497-501. Wiley.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1002/aur.2876 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4311202441

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
20. David A. Walker (2003). JMASM9: Converting Kendall's Tau For Correlational Or Meta-Analytic Analyses . Journal of Modern Applied Statistical Methods, 2(2), 525-530. Scilight Press Pty Ltd.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.22237/jmasm/1067646360 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2132961058

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
21. Julia Sinclair (2013). Why I dislike “Person First” language . Auton Crit J Interdiscip Autism Stud, 1(2), 2.

    Type: Other

    Crossref
22. Lynnette H. Hersh , Patrick Dwyer *Autistic author. Learn more… , Steven K. Kapp *Autistic author. Learn more… , Sergey Shevchuk-Hill , Ava N. Gurba *Autistic author. Learn more… , Elizabeth Kilgallon *Autistic author. Learn more… et al. (2024). Community Member Views on Autism Intervention: Effects of Closeness to Autistic People with Intellectual Disabilities And Nonspeaking Autistic People . Autism in Adulthood, 6(3), 253-271. SAGE Publications.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1089/aut.2023.0202 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4402148377

    AutiHub · Autistic Autism Scholarship Project Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
23. Lorcan Kenny , Caroline Hattersley , Bonnie Molins , Carole Buckley , Carol Povey , Elizabeth Pellicano (2016). Which terms should be used to describe autism? Perspectives from the UK autism community . Autism, 20(4), 442-462. SAGE Publications.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/1362361315588200 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2227393071

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
24. Giacomo Vivanti (2020). Ask the Editor: What is the Most Appropriate Way to Talk About Individuals with a Diagnosis of Autism? Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 50(2), 691-693. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10803-019-04280-x OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2988128310

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
25. Eya-Mist Rødgaard *Autistic author. Learn more… , Kristian Jensen , Kamilla Woznica Miskowiak , Laurent Mottron (2022). Representativeness of autistic samples in studies recruiting through social media . Autism Research, 15(8), 1447-1456. Wiley.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1002/aur.2777 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4284991023

    AutiHub · Autistic Autism Scholarship Project Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
26. Kristen Gillespie-Lynch , Steven K. Kapp *Autistic author. Learn more… , Patricia J. Brooks , Jonathan Pickens , Ben Schwartzman (2017). Whose Expertise Is It? Evidence for Autistic Adults as Critical Autism Experts . Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 438. Frontiers Media SA.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00438 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2601691194

    AutiHub · Autistic Autism Scholarship Project Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
27. Monique Botha *Autistic author. Learn more… , Jacqueline Hanlon , Gemma Williams *Autistic author. Learn more… (2023). Does Language Matter? Identity-First Versus Person-First Language Use in Autism Research: A Response to Vivanti . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 53(2), 870-878. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10803-020-04858-w OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3125099730

    AutiHub · Autistic Autism Scholarship Project Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
28. Morton Ann Gernsbacher (2017). Editorial Perspective: The use of person‐first language in scholarly writing may accentuate stigma . Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 58(7), 859-861. Wiley.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1111/jcpp.12706 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2626162561

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
29. Jacquiline den Houting *Autistic author. Learn more… (2019). Neurodiversity: An insider’s perspective . Autism, 23(2), 271-273. SAGE Publications.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/1362361318820762 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2905135405

    AutiHub · Autistic Autism Scholarship Project Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
30. Daryll Archibald , Patrick Dwyer *Autistic author. Learn more… , Simon Bury (2024). Current Debates on Autism Language Preferences: An Overview . In The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Disability (pp. 1-13). Springer Nature Switzerland.

    Type: Book chapter DOI: 10.1007/978-3-031-40858-8_88-1 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4401487740

    AutiHub · Autistic Autism Scholarship Project Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
31. Ruth Monk *Autistic author. Learn more… , Andrew Whitehouse , Hannah Waddington (2022). The use of language in autism research . Trends in Neurosciences, 45(11), 791-793. Elsevier BV.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/j.tins.2022.08.009 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4298008727

    AutiHub · Autistic Autism Scholarship Project Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
32. Ginny Russell , Will Mandy , Daisy Elliott , Rhianna White , Tom Pittwood , Tamsin Ford (2019). Selection bias on intellectual ability in autism research: a cross-sectional review and meta-analysis . Molecular Autism, 10(1), 9. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1186/s13229-019-0260-x OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2927010782

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
33. Dwyer P. (2024). Community views of neurodiversity, models of disability and autism intervention: Mixed methods reveal shared goals and key tensions . Autism, 29, 136236132412730.

    Type: Other

    Crossref
34. Kristen Bottema-Beutel , Steven K. Kapp *Autistic author. Learn more… , Jessica Nina Lester , Noah Sasson , Brittany N. Hand (2021). Avoiding Ableist Language: Suggestions for Autism Researchers . Autism in Adulthood, 3(1), 18-29. SAGE Publications.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1089/aut.2020.0014 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3083347663

    AutiHub · Autistic Autism Scholarship Project Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
35. Gail A Alvares , Keely Bebbington , Dominique Cleary , Kiah Evans , Emma J. Glasson , Murray Maybery et al. (2020). The misnomer of ‘high functioning autism’: Intelligence is an imprecise predictor of functional abilities at diagnosis . Autism, 24(1), 221-232. SAGE Publications.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/1362361319852831 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2950856395

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
36. Robert Chapman *Autistic author. Learn more… (2020). The reality of autism: On the metaphysics of disorder and diversity . Philosophical Psychology, 33(6), 799-819. Informa UK Limited.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1080/09515089.2020.1751103 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2971749818

    AutiHub · Autistic Autism Scholarship Project Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
37. Robert Chapman *Autistic author. Learn more… (2019). Neurodiversity Theory and Its Discontents: Autism, Schizophrenia, and the Social Model of Disability . In The Bloomsbury Companion to Philosophy of Psychiatry (pp. 371-390). Bloomsbury Publishing Plc.

    Type: Book chapter DOI: 10.5040/9781350024090.ch-018 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2964791169

    AutiHub · Autistic Autism Scholarship Project Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
38. Patrick Dwyer *Autistic author. Learn more… , Jacalyn G. Ryan *Autistic author. Learn more… , Zachary J. Williams *Autistic author. Learn more… , Dena L. Gassner *Autistic author. Learn more… (2022). First Do No Harm: Suggestions Regarding Respectful Autism Language . Pediatrics, 149(Supplement 4), e2020049437N. American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP).

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1542/peds.2020-049437n OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4223928480

    AutiHub · Autistic Autism Scholarship Project Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
39. González Moreno, Andrés Santiago (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders . American Psychiatric Association.

    Type: Book DOI: 10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4247665917

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
40. Martijn Dekker *Autistic author. Learn more… (2020). From Exclusion to Acceptance: Independent Living on the Autistic Spectrum . In Autistic Community and the Neurodiversity Movement (pp. 41-49). Springer Singapore.

    Type: Book chapter DOI: 10.1007/978-981-13-8437-0_3 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2985680735

    AutiHub · Autistic Autism Scholarship Project Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
41. (n.d.). Gardiner F. The problems with functioning labels. Thinking Person’s Guide to Autism. March 23 2018. https://thinkingautismguide.com/2018/03/the-problems-with-functioning-labels.html [Last accessed: April 8 2022].

    Type: Other

    Crossref
42. Ginny Russell (2020). Critiques of the Neurodiversity Movement . In Autistic community and the neurodiversity movement: stories from the frontline (pp. 287-303). Springer Singapore.

    Type: Book chapter DOI: 10.1007/978-981-13-8437-0_21 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2986569042

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
43. Summer Bottini , Hannah E. Morton *Autistic author. Learn more… , Kelly A. Buchanan , Kait Gould (2024). Moving from Disorder to Difference: A Systematic Review of Recent Language Use in Autism Research . Autism in Adulthood, 6(2), 128-140. SAGE Publications.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1089/aut.2023.0030 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4386469786

    AutiHub · Autistic Autism Scholarship Project Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
44. Pia Bradshaw , Claire Pickett , Mieke L van Driel , Katie Brooker , Anna Urbanowicz (2021). ‘Autistic’ or ‘with autism’? Why the way general practitioners view and talk about autism matters . Australian Journal of General Practice, 50(3), 104-108. The Royal Australian College of General Practitioners.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.31128/ajgp-11-20-5721 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3130813437

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
45. (n.d.). NHS England. Making information and the words we use accessible. https://www.england.nhs.uk/learning-disabilities/about/get-involved/involving-people/making-information-and-the-words-we-use-accessible/ [Last accessed: September 10 2024].

    Type: Other

    Crossref
46. Robert Chapman *Autistic author. Learn more… (2021). Neurodiversity and the Social Ecology of Mental Functions . Perspectives on Psychological Science, 16(6), 1360-1372. SAGE Publications.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/1745691620959833 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3126691317

    AutiHub · Autistic Autism Scholarship Project Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
47. Eric Rubenstein , Sarah Furnier (2021). #Bias: The Opportunities and Challenges of Surveys That Recruit and Collect Data of Autistic Adults Online . Autism in Adulthood, 3(2), 120-128. SAGE Publications.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1089/aut.2020.0031 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3102111285

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
48. Patrick Dwyer *Autistic author. Learn more… , Yukari Takarae , Iman Zadeh , Susan M. Rivera , Clifford D. Saron (2022). A Multidimensional Investigation of Sensory Processing in Autism: Parent- and Self-Report Questionnaires, Psychophysical Thresholds, and Event-Related Potentials in the Auditory and Somatosensory Modalities . Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 16, 811547. Frontiers Media SA.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2022.811547 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4229443193

    AutiHub · Autistic Autism Scholarship Project Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
49. Caroline Jose , Patricia George-Zwicker *Autistic author. Learn more… , Aaron Bouma *Autistic author. Learn more… , Louise Tardif *Autistic author. Learn more… , Darlene Pugsley , Mathieu Bélanger et al. (2021). The Associations Between Clinical, Social, Financial Factors and Unmet Needs of Autistic Adults: Results from an Observational Study . Autism in Adulthood, 3(3), 266-274. SAGE Publications.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1089/aut.2020.0027 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3135908284

    AutiHub · Autistic Autism Scholarship Project Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
50. (n.d.). Bonnello C. Results and Analysis of the Autistic Not Weird 2022 Autism Survey—Autistic Not Weird. March 23 2022. https://autisticnotweird.com/autismsurvey/ [Last accessed: September 10 2022].

    Type: Other

    Crossref
51. Ari Ne'eman *Autistic author. Learn more… , Elizabeth Pellicano (2022). Neurodiversity as Politics . Human Development, 66(2), 149-157. S. Karger AG.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1159/000524277 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4221096330

    AutiHub · Autistic Autism Scholarship Project Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
52. (n.d.). Bailin A. Clearing up some misconceptions about neurodiversity: Just because you value neurological differences doesn’t mean you’re denying the reality of disabilities. Sci Am. Published online June 2019. https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/clearing-up-some-misconceptions-about-neurodiversity/

    Type: Other

    Crossref
53. Mebuki Sunagawa (2023). How much of my true self can i show? social adaptation in autistic women: a qualitative study . BMC Psychology, 11(1), 1. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1186/s40359-023-01192-5 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4367844013

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
54. (n.d.). Dekker M. A correction on the origin of the term ‘neurodiversity.’ July 13 2023. https://www.inlv.org/2023/07/13/neurodiversity-origin.html

    Type: Other

    Crossref
55. Singer J. (1999). Disability discourse . Disability discourse, 59.

    Type: Other

    Crossref
56. (n.d.). Blume H. Neurodiversity: On the neurological underpinnings of geekdom. The Atlantic. Published online September 1998. https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1998/09/neurodiversity/305909/

    Type: Other

    Crossref
57. Monique Botha *Autistic author. Learn more… , Robert Chapman *Autistic author. Learn more… , Morénike Giwa Onaiwu *Autistic author. Learn more… , Steven K. Kapp *Autistic author. Learn more… , Abs S. Ashley *Autistic author. Learn more… , Nick Walker *Autistic author. Learn more… (2024). The neurodiversity concept was developed collectively: An overdue correction on the origins of neurodiversity theory . Autism, 28(6), 1591-1594. SAGE Publications.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/13623613241237871 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4392704062

    AutiHub · Autistic Autism Scholarship Project Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
58. (n.d.). Singer J. What is neurodiversity? Neurodiversity 2. 0. https://neurodiversity2.blogspot.com/p/what.html [Last accessed: December 17 2020].

    Type: Other

    Crossref
59. Walker N. (2021). Neuroqueer heresies . Neuroqueer heresies.

    Type: Other

    Crossref
60. Renate Bosman , Jochem Thijs (2024). Language Preferences in the Dutch Autism Community: A Social Psychological Approach . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 54(5), 1727. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10803-023-05903-0 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4319657255

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
61. Steven K. Kapp *Autistic author. Learn more… (2020). Introduction . In Autistic community and the neurodiversity movement (pp. 1-19). Springer Singapore.

    Type: Book chapter DOI: 10.1007/978-981-13-8437-0_1 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4252451406

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
62. (n.d.). Asasumasu K. @NeuroCosmos @helenrottier. Twitter. 2020. https://twitter.com/uvgkassi/status/1306062363305615360?lang=en [Last accessed: April 8 2022].

    Type: Other

    Crossref
63. (n.d.). Chapman R. Is Autism Really a “Genetically Based Brain Wiring”? Breaking free from biological reductionism. Psychology Today. August 12 2019. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/neurodiverse-age/201908/is-autism-really-genetically-based-brain-wiring [Last accessed: November 14 2022].

    Type: Other

    Crossref
64. (n.d.). Milton D Timimi S. Debate 1. Does autism have an essential nature? University of Kent. 2016. https://kar.kent.ac.uk/id/eprint/62684 [Last accessed: July 5 2022].

    Type: Other

    Crossref
65. Sara M. Acevedo *Autistic author. Learn more… , Suzanne Stolz (2026). On the Misuses of Neurodiversity: Critical Approaches and Counter-Narratives . Autism in Adulthood, 8(3), 267-274. SAGE Publications.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1089/aut.2024.0016 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4405083908

    AutiHub · Autistic Autism Scholarship Project Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
66. Kristien Hens , Leni Van Goidsenhoven (2023). Developmental diversity: Putting the development back into research about developmental conditions . Frontiers in Psychiatry, 13, 986732-986732. Frontiers Media SA.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2022.986732 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4313621133

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
67. Jaime Flowers , Jillian Dawes , Daniel McCleary , Hunter Marzolf (2023). Words matter: Language preferences in a sample of autistic adults . Neurodiversity, 1. SAGE Publications.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/27546330231216548 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4389052076

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
68. (n.d.). Torchiano M. Package ‘effsize.’ Published online October 13 2022. https://pbil.univ-lyon1.fr/CRAN/web/packages/effsize/effsize.pdf [Last accessed: November 19 2022].

    Type: Other

    Crossref
69. (n.d.). Mangiafico SS. Summary and Analysis of Extension Program Evaluation in R. 1. 19. 10. Rutgers; 2016. https://rcompanion.org/handbook/

    Type: Other

    Crossref
70. (n.d.). Harrell F. Package ‘rms.’ Published online October 14 2022. http://mirror.psu.ac.th/pub/cran/web/packages/rms/rms.pdf [Last accessed: November 19 2022].

    Type: Other

    Crossref
71. Day H (n.d.). Neuro-Affirming Reports: Guidance for Practitioners . Neuro-Affirming Reports: Guidance for Practitioners.

    Type: Other

    Crossref
72. (n.d.). Ballou EP. What the neurodiversity movement does - and doesn’t - offer. Thinking Person’s Guide to Autism. February 6 2018. http://www.thinkingautismguide.com/2018/02/what-neurodiversity-movement-doesand.html [Last accessed: February 9 2018].

    Type: Other

    Crossref
73. (n.d.). Neumeier S. ‘To Siri With Love’ and the Problem With Neurodiversity Lite. Rewire News Group. February 9 2018. https://rewirenewsgroup.com/2018/02/09/siri-love-problem-neurodiversity-lite/ [Last accessed: October 5 2023].

    Type: Other

    Crossref
74. (n.d.). Developmental Adult Neuro-Diversity Association. December 2 2003. https://web.archive.org/web/20031208065520/ http://danda.org.uk/ [Last accessed: September 11 2024].

    Type: Other

    Crossref
75. (n.d.). Bascom J Wallace G. Why intelligence scores do not predict success for autistic adults. Spectrum News https://spectrumnews.org/opinion/viewpoint/intelligence-scores-not-predict-success-autistic-adults/ [Last accessed: November 28 2017].

    Type: Other

    Crossref
76. (n.d.). Kapp S Ne’eman A. ASD in DSM-5: What the research shows and recommendations for change. Autistic Self Advocacy Network; 2012. https://autisticadvocacy.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/ASAN_DSM-5_2_final.pdf [Last accessed: September 11 2024].

    Type: Other

    Crossref
77. (n.d.). Harp B. I Am Joe’s Functioning Label. Square 8. March 14 2008. https://web.archive.org/web/20231120024704/ http://www . 8square8.com/2008/03/i-am-joes-functioning-label.html [Last accessed: September 10 2024].

    Type: Other

    Crossref
78. (n.d.). Ngwagwa. Neuroexpansive* Thoughts. Medium. January 12 2022. https://medium.com/@ngwagwa/neuroexpansive-thoughts-9db1e566d361 [Last accessed: November 23 2022].

    Type: Other

    Crossref
79. (n.d.). Hersh L Dwyer P Gillespie-Lynch K Gurba A Chang D Rivera SM. Differences in Neurodiversity Movement Support Levels Between Gender Identity and Racial/Ethnic Groups. Presented at: UC Davis Psychology Conference; May 2022; Davis CA USA. 10. 13140/RG. 2. 2. 26612. 94088

    Type: Other

    Crossref
80. (n.d.). Dekker M. On our own terms: Emerging autistic culture. In: Autism99 Online Conference. 1999.

    Type: Other

    Crossref
81. (n.d.). Thinking Person’s Guide to Autism. Neurodiversity FAQ: A Neurodiversity Facts and Myths Primer. Thinking Person’s Guide to Autism. https://thinkingautismguide.com/so-youre-doing-story-about [Last accessed: June 27 2022]

    Type: Other

    Crossref
82. (n.d.). Sparrow M. Are Co-occurring Conditions Part of Autism? Thinking Person’s Guide to Autism. August 15 2018. https://thinkingautismguide.com/2018/08/are-co-occurring-conditions-part-of.html [Last accessed: November 23 2022].

    Type: Other

    Crossref