A Conceptual Analysis of Autistic Masking: Understanding the Narrative of Stigma and the Illusion of Choice

Authors

Abstract

Autistic masking is an emerging research area that focuses on understanding the conscious or unconscious suppression of natural autistic responses and adoption of alternatives across a range of domains. It is suggested that masking may relate to negative outcomes for autistic people, including late/missed diagnosis, mental health issues, burnout, and suicidality. This makes it essential to understand what masking is, and why it occurs. In this conceptual analysis, we suggest that masking is an unsurprising response to the deficit narrative and accompanying stigma that has developed around autism. We outline how classical social theory (i.e., social identity theory) can help us to understand how and why people mask by situating masking in the social context in which it develops. We draw upon the literature on stigma and marginalization to examine how masking might intersect with different aspects of identity (e.g., gender). We argue that although masking might contribute toward disparities in diagnosis, it is important that we do not impose gender norms and stereotypes by associating masking with a "female autism phenotype." Finally we provide recommendations for future research, stressing the need for increased understanding of the different ways that autism may present in different people (e.g., internalizing and externalizing) and intersectionality. We suggest that masking is examined through a sociodevelopmental lens, taking into account factors that contribute toward the initial development of the mask and that drive its maintenance. Lay summary: We hope that this analysis will help researchers to understand that some aspects of masking might be unique to autistic people, but some aspects might be like other kinds of "pretending to be normal" that other people who are socially excluded use to try and fit in. We hope that our suggestions can help to improve our understanding of masking, and lead to research that makes life better for autistic people.

1. Morton Ann Gernsbacher (2007). On Not Being Human. APS Obs, 20(2), 5.

   Type: Article OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W279745879

   Crossref OpenAlex
2. Laura Hull , K. V. Petrides , Carrie Allison , Paula Smith , Simon Baron-Cohen , Meng-Chuan Lai et al. (2017). “Putting on My Best Normal”: Social Camouflaging in Adults with Autism Spectrum Conditions . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 47(8), 2519-2534. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.

   Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10803-017-3166-5 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2616560149

   Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
3. Asbjørn M. Drewes , Anne E. Olesen , Adam D. Farmer , Eva Szigethy , Vinciane Rebours , Søren S. Olesen (2020). Gastrointestinal pain . Nature Reviews Disease Primers, 6(1), 1-1. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.

   Type: Article DOI: 10.1038/s41572-019-0135-7 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4211028654

   OpenAlex OpenCitations
4. Donna Reilly Williams (1996). Autism: An Inside-Out Approach: An Innovative Look at the 'Mechanics' of 'Autism' and its Developmental 'Cousins' .

   Type: Book OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W614408088

   Crossref OpenAlex
5. Lucy Anne Livingston , Francesca Happé (2017). Conceptualising compensation in neurodevelopmental disorders: Reflections from autism spectrum disorder . Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 80, 729-742. Elsevier BV.

   Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.06.005 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2714476989

   Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
6. John F. Strang , Anna I. R. van der Miesen , Reid Caplan *Autistic author. Learn more… , Cat Hughes *Autistic author. Learn more… , Sharon daVanport *Autistic author. Learn more… , Meng-Chuan Lai (2020). Both sex- and gender-related factors should be considered in autism research and clinical practice . Autism, 24(3), 539-543. SAGE Publications.

   Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/1362361320913192 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3016474688

   AutiHub · Autistic Scholars Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
7. Arlie Russell Hochschild (2012). The Managed Heart . University of California Press.

   Type: Book DOI: 10.1525/9780520951853 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W1490676200

   Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
8. Wenn Lawson *Autistic author. Learn more… (2020). Adaptive Morphing and Coping with Social Threat in Autism: An Autistic Perspective . Journal of Intellectual Disability - Diagnosis and Treatment, 8(3), 519-526. Lifescience Global.

   Type: Article DOI: 10.6000/2292-2598.2020.08.03.29 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3089250252

   AutiHub · Autistic Scholars Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
9. Eilidh Cage , Jessica Di Monaco , Victoria Newell (2019). Understanding, attitudes and dehumanisation towards autistic people . Autism, 23(6), 1373-1383. SAGE Publications.

   Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/1362361318811290 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2901663576

   Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
10. Mary Jo Hatch , Majken Schultz (2004). Organizational identity: a reader .

    Type: Book OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W1513067964

    OpenAlex
11. Lucy Anne Livingston , Punit Shah , Victoria Milner , Francesca Happé (2020). Quantifying compensatory strategies in adults with and without diagnosed autism . Molecular Autism, 11(1), 15-15. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1186/s13229-019-0308-y OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2995930586

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
12. Simon Baron-Cohen (1995). Mindblindness . The MIT Press.

    Type: Book DOI: 10.7551/mitpress/4635.001.0001 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4244209073

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
13. Hans Asperger (1944). Die „Autistischen Psychopathen” im Kindesalter . Archiv für Psychiatrie und Nervenkrankheiten, 117(1), 76-136. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/bf01837709 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W1965210252

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
14. Damian Milton *Autistic author. Learn more… , Tara Sims (2016). How is a sense of well-being and belonging constructed in the accounts of autistic adults? Disability & Society, 31(4), 520-534. Informa UK Limited.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1080/09687599.2016.1186529 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2415653571

    AutiHub · Autistic Scholars Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
15. Rosabeth Moss Kanter , Herbert Blumer (1971). Symbolic Interactionism: Perspective and Method. American Sociological Review, 36(2), 333. SAGE Publications.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.2307/2094060 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W1994434576

    OpenAlex
16. (n.d.). Rose K. Masking: I am not OK. 2018. https://theautisticadvocate.com/2018/07/masking-i-am-not-ok/ (accessed June28 2020).

    Type: Other

    Crossref
17. E. Tory Higgins (1987). Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect. Psychological Review, 94(3), 319-340. American Psychological Association (APA).

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1037/0033-295x.94.3.319 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2162153512

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
18. Dinah Murray *Autistic author. Learn more… , Mike Lesser *Autistic author. Learn more… , Wenn Lawson *Autistic author. Learn more… (2005). Attention, monotropism and the diagnostic criteria for autism . Autism, 9(2), 139-156. SAGE Publications.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/1362361305051398 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2028337741

    AutiHub · Autistic Scholars Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
19. Willey LH. (2014). Pretending to Be Normal: Living with Asperger's Syndrome (Autism Spectrum Disorder) Expanded Edition . Pretending to Be Normal: Living with Asperger's Syndrome (Autism Spectrum Disorder) Expanded Edition.

    Type: Other

    Crossref
20. Belle Rose Ragins (2008). Disclosure Disconnects: Antecedents and Consequences of Disclosing Invisible Stigmas across Life Domains . Academy of Management Review, 33(1), 194-215. Academy of Management.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.5465/amr.2008.27752724 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2056225592

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
21. Sarah Bargiela , Robyn Steward *Autistic author. Learn more… , Will Mandy (2016). The Experiences of Late-diagnosed Women with Autism Spectrum Conditions: An Investigation of the Female Autism Phenotype . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 46(10), 3281-3294. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10803-016-2872-8 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2494524772

    AutiHub · Autistic Scholars Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
22. Laura Hull , Meng-Chuan Lai , Simon Baron-Cohen , Carrie Allison , Paula Smith , KV Petrides et al. (2020). Gender differences in self-reported camouflaging in autistic and non-autistic adults . Autism, 24(2), 352-363. SAGE Publications.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/1362361319864804 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2964343923

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
23. Coralie Chevallier , Gregor Kohls , Vanessa Troiani , Edward S. Brodkin , Robert T. Schultz (2012). The social motivation theory of autism . Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 16(4), 231-239. Elsevier BV.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2012.02.007 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2091028497

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
24. Sarah Cassidy , K. Gould , E. Townsend , Mirabel Pelton , Ashley Robertson , Jacqui Rodgers (2020). Is Camouflaging Autistic Traits Associated with Suicidal Thoughts and Behaviours? Expanding the Interpersonal Psychological Theory of Suicide in an Undergraduate Student Sample . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 50(10), 3638-3648. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10803-019-04323-3 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2993272702

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
25. Samuel Tromans , Verity Chester , Eli Gemegah , Kristian Roberts , Zoe Morgan , Guiqing Lily Yao et al. (2021). Autism identification across ethnic groups: a narrative review . Advances in Autism, 7(3), 241-255. Emerald.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1108/aia-03-2020-0017 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3039573567

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
26. Steven K. Kapp *Autistic author. Learn more… , Kristen Gillespie-Lynch , Lauren E. Sherman , Ted Hutman (2013). Deficit, difference, or both? Autism and neurodiversity. Developmental Psychology, 49(1), 59-71. American Psychological Association (APA).

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1037/a0028353 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2124715426

    AutiHub · Autistic Scholars Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
27. Dora M Raymaker *Autistic author. Learn more… , Alan R. Teo , Nicole A. Steckler , Brandy Lentz , Mirah Scharer , Austin Delos Santos et al. (2020). “Having All of Your Internal Resources Exhausted Beyond Measure and Being Left with No Clean-Up Crew”: Defining Autistic Burnout . Autism in Adulthood, 2(2), 132-143. SAGE Publications.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1089/aut.2019.0079 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3015685928

    AutiHub · Autistic Scholars AutiHub · Documentation center Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
28. Steven K. Kapp *Autistic author. Learn more… , Robyn Steward *Autistic author. Learn more… , Laura Crane , Daisy Elliott , Chris Elphick , Elizabeth Pellicano et al. (2019). ‘People should be allowed to do what they like’: Autistic adults’ views and experiences of stimming . Autism, 23(7), 1782-1792. SAGE Publications.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/1362361319829628 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2912195587

    AutiHub · Autistic Scholars Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
29. Elise Robinson , Paul Lichtenstein , Henrik Anckarsäter , Francesca Happé , Angelica Ronald (2013). Examining and interpreting the female protective effect against autistic behavior . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 110(13), 5258-5262. National Academy of Sciences.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1211070110 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2129873641

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
30. Noah J. Sasson , Daniel J. Faso , Jack Nugent , Sarah Lovell , Daniel P. Kennedy , Ruth B. Grossman (2017). Neurotypical Peers are Less Willing to Interact with Those with Autism based on Thin Slice Judgments . Scientific Reports, 7(1), 40700-40700. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1038/srep40700 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2585989266

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
31. Simon Baron-Cohen (2002). The extreme male brain theory of autism . Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 6(6), 248-254. Elsevier BV.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/s1364-6613(02)01904-6 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2131018314

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
32. Kate Cooper , Laura G. E. Smith , Ailsa Russell (2018). Gender Identity in Autism: Sex Differences in Social Affiliation with Gender Groups . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 48(12), 3995-4006. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10803-018-3590-1 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2802864872

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
33. Leo Kanner (1944). Early infantile autism . The Journal of Pediatrics, 25(3), 211-217. Elsevier BV.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/s0022-3476(44)80156-1 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2020392218

    Crossref
34. Damian Milton *Autistic author. Learn more… (2016). Disposable dispositions: reflections upon the work of Iris Marion Young in relation to the social oppression of autistic people . Disability & Society, 31(10), 1403-1407. Informa UK Limited.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1080/09687599.2016.1263468 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2567616908

    AutiHub · Autistic Scholars Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
35. Lorcan Kenny , Caroline Hattersley , Bonnie Molins , Carole Buckley , Carol Povey , Elizabeth Pellicano (2016). Which terms should be used to describe autism? Perspectives from the UK autism community . Autism, 20(4), 442-462. SAGE Publications.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/1362361315588200 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2227393071

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
36. Kapp S. (2019). How social deficit models exacerbate the medical model: Autism as case in point . Autism Policy Pract, 2(1), 3.

    Type: Other

    Crossref
37. Chown N (2020). Chown N,, Leatherland J,. Can a person be ‘a bit autistic’? A response to Francesca Happé and Uta Frith. J Autism Dev Disord. 2020. DOI: 10. 1007/s10803-020-04541-0 J Autism Dev Disord.

    Type: Other

    Crossref
38. Meng-Chuan Lai , Michael Lombardo , Amber Ruigrok , Bhismadev Chakrabarti , Bonnie Auyeung , Péter Szatmári et al. (2017). Quantifying and exploring camouflaging in men and women with autism . Autism, 21(6), 690-702. SAGE Publications.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/1362361316671012 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2543847144

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
39. Will Mandy , Elizabeth Pellicano , Beaté St Pourcain , David Skuse , Jon Heron (2018). The development of autistic social traits across childhood and adolescence in males and females . Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 59(11), 1143-1151. Wiley.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1111/jcpp.12913 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2800125913

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
40. Jeroen Dewinter , H. De Graaf , Sander Begeer (2017). Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity, and Romantic Relationships in Adolescents and Adults with Autism Spectrum Disorder . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 47(9), 2927-2934. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10803-017-3199-9 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2624183778

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
41. Fiona Kumari Campbell (2009). Internalised Ableism: The Tyranny Within . In Contours of Ableism (pp. 16-29). Palgrave Macmillan UK.

    Type: Book chapter DOI: 10.1057/9780230245181_2 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2504479528

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
42. (n.d.). Rose K Vivian S. Regarding the use of dehumanising rhetoric. 2020. https://theautisticadvocate.com/2020/02/regarding-the-use-of-dehumanising-rhetoric/ (accessed June28 2020).

    Type: Other

    Crossref
43. Chantelle Wood , Megan Freeth (2016). Students’ Stereotypes of Autism . Journal of Educational Issues, 2(2), 131. Macrothink Institute, Inc..

    Type: Article DOI: 10.5296/jei.v2i2.9975 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2532162578

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
44. Monique Botha *Autistic author. Learn more… , David M. Frost (2020). Extending the Minority Stress Model to Understand Mental Health Problems Experienced by the Autistic Population . Society and Mental Health, 10(1), 20-34. SAGE Publications.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/2156869318804297 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2896204132

    AutiHub · Autistic Scholars Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
45. (n.d.). Cowen T. Autism as academic paradigm. The chronicle of higher education. 2009. https://www.chronicle.com/article/autism-as-academic-paradigm/ (accessed September1 2020).

    Type: Other

    Crossref
46. Lucy Anne Livingston , Punit Shah , Francesca Happé (2019). Compensation in autism is not consistent with social motivation theory . Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 42, 32. Cambridge University Press (CUP).

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1017/s0140525x18002388 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2963064544

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
47. Goffman E. (1963). Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity . Stigma: Notes on the management of spoiled identity.

    Type: Other

    Crossref
48. Richard Woods *Autistic author. Learn more… (2017). Exploring how the social model of disability can be re-invigorated for autism: in response to Jonathan Levitt . Disability & Society, 32(7), 1090-1095. Informa UK Limited.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1080/09687599.2017.1328157 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2615712300

    AutiHub · Autistic Scholars Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
49. (n.d.). Botha M. Autistic community connectedness as a buffer against the effects of minority stress. [Doctoral Thesis]. Surrey United Kingdom. University of Surrey. 2020. http://epubs.surrey.ac.uk/854098/7/Autistic Community Connectedness as a Buffer Against Minority Stress - M Botha.pdf

    Type: Other

    Crossref
50. Iris Schneid , Aviad E. Raz (2020). The mask of autism: Social camouflaging and impression management as coping/normalization from the perspectives of autistic adults . Social Science & Medicine, 248, 112826. Elsevier BV.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2020.112826 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3003216866

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
51. Milton D (2012). Milton D,, Moon L. The normalisation agenda and the psycho-emotional disablement of autistic people. Autonomy Crit J Interdiscip Autism Stud. 2012;1(1). Autonomy Crit J Interdiscip Autism Stud.

    Type: Other

    Crossref
52. (n.d.). Rose K. An autistic invalidation. 2018. https://theautisticadvocate.com/2018/09/an-autistic-invalidation/ (accessed June28 2020).

    Type: Other

    Crossref
53. Laurent Mottron , Danilo Bzdok (2020). Autism spectrum heterogeneity: fact or artifact? Molecular Psychiatry, 25(12), 3178-3185. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1038/s41380-020-0748-y OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3022866684

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
54. Judith Gould (2017). Towards understanding the under-recognition of girls and women on the autism spectrum . Autism, 21(6), 703-705. SAGE Publications.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/1362361317706174 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2740451639

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
55. Eilidh Cage , Zoe Troxell-Whitman (2019). Understanding the Reasons, Contexts and Costs of Camouflaging for Autistic Adults . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 49(5), 1899-1911. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10803-018-03878-x OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2909219349

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
56. Catherine Lord , Traolach Brugha , Tony Charman , James Cusack *Autistic author. Learn more… , Guillaume Dumas , Thomas Frazier et al. (2020). Autism spectrum disorder . Nature Reviews Disease Primers, 6(1), 1. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1038/s41572-019-0138-4 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2769544142

    AutiHub · Autistic Scholars Crossref OpenAlex
57. Rose K. (n.d.). Star Institute for Sensory Processing . Star Institute for Sensory Processing.

    Type: Other

    Crossref
58. Courtney Jorgenson , Timothy Lewis , Chad Rose , Stephen Kanne (2020). Social Camouflaging in Autistic and Neurotypical Adolescents: A Pilot Study of Differences by Sex and Diagnosis . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 50(12), 4344-4355. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10803-020-04491-7 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3015872025

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
59. Sarah Griffiths , Carrie Allison , Rebecca Kenny , Rosemary Holt , Paula Smith , Simon Baron-Cohen (2019). The Vulnerability Experiences Quotient (VEQ): A Study of Vulnerability, Mental Health and Life Satisfaction in Autistic Adults . Autism Research, 12(10), 1516-1528. Wiley.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1002/aur.2162 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2949176131

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
60. Felicity Sedgewick , Vivian Hill , Elizabeth Pellicano (2019). ‘It’s different for girls’: Gender differences in the friendships and conflict of autistic and neurotypical adolescents . Autism, 23(5), 1119-1132. SAGE Publications.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/1362361318794930 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2894712382

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
61. Meng-Chuan Lai , Michael Lombardo , Bhismadev Chakrabarti , Amber Ruigrok , Edward T. Bullmore , John Suckling et al. (2019). Neural self-representation in autistic women and association with ‘compensatory camouflaging’ . Autism, 23(5), 1210-1223. SAGE Publications.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/1362361318807159 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2892828630

    OpenAlex
62. For-Wey Lung , Bih-Ching Shu , Tung-Liang Chiang , Shio-Jean Lin (2019). Prevalence of bullying and perceived happiness in adolescents with learning disability, intellectual disability, ADHD, and autism spectrum disorder . Medicine, 98(6), e14483. Ovid Technologies (Wolters Kluwer Health).

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1097/md.0000000000014483 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2912613520

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
63. Laura Hull , K. V. Petrides , Will Mandy (2020). The Female Autism Phenotype and Camouflaging: a Narrative Review . Review Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 7(4), 306-317. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s40489-020-00197-9 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3004137504

    OpenAlex OpenCitations
64. Milton D. (2017). A mismatch of salience: Explorations of the nature of autism from theory to practice . A Mismatch of Salience: Explorations of the Nature of Autism from Theory to Practice.

    Type: Other

    Crossref
65. Monique Botha *Autistic author. Learn more… , Bridget Dibb , David M. Frost (2020). "Autism is me": An investigation of how autistic individuals make sense of autism and stigma. Center for Open Science.

    Type: Preprint DOI: 10.31219/osf.io/gv2mw OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4245116485

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
66. Emma Kinnaird , Catherine Stewart , Kate Tchanturia (2019). Investigating alexithymia in autism: A systematic review and meta-analysis . European Psychiatry, 55, 80-89. Cambridge University Press (CUP).

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/j.eurpsy.2018.09.004 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2899269258

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
67. Hayley Morgan (2018). A mismatch of salience: explorations of the nature of autism from theory to practice . Disability & Society, 33(10), 1681-1683. Informa UK Limited.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1080/09687599.2018.1541617 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2906494691

    OpenAlex
68. Blumer H. (1986). Symbolic Interactionism: Perspective and Method . Symbolic Interactionism: Perspective and Method.

    Type: Other

    Crossref
69. Henry Wood-Downie , Bonnie Wong , Hanna Kovshoff , Will Mandy , Laura Hull , Julie A. Hadwin (2021). Sex/Gender Differences in Camouflaging in Children and Adolescents with Autism . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 51(4), 1353-1364. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10803-020-04615-z OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3044619148

    OpenAlex OpenCitations
70. Bem DJ. (1972). Self-perception theory . Adv Exp Soc Psychol, 6(1), 1.

    Type: Other

    Crossref
71. Mead GH (1934). Mind, Self, and Society . Mind, Self, and Society, 253.

    Type: Other

    Crossref
72. Alexandra Leedham , Andrew R. Thompson , Richard Smith , Megan Freeth (2020). ‘I was exhausted trying to figure it out’: The experiences of females receiving an autism diagnosis in middle to late adulthood . Autism, 24(1), 135-146. SAGE Publications.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/1362361319853442 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2947577397

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
73. Ashleigh Hillier , Nicholas Gallop , Eva Mendes , Dylan Tellez , Abigail Buckingham , Afreen Nizami et al. (2020). LGBTQ + and autism spectrum disorder: Experiences and challenges . International Journal of Transgender Health, 21(1), 98-110. Informa UK Limited.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1080/15532739.2019.1594484 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2941421950

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
74. Erving Goffman (2023). The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life . In Social Theory Re-Wired (pp. 450-459). Routledge.

    Type: Book chapter DOI: 10.4324/9781003320609-59 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4367314869

    Crossref OpenAlex
75. Sami Timimi , Damian Milton *Autistic author. Learn more… , Virginia Bovell , Steven K. Kapp *Autistic author. Learn more… , Ginny Russell (2019). Deconstructing Diagnosis: Four Commentaries on a Diagnostic Tool to Assess Individuals for Autism Spectrum Disorders. Autonomy (Birm), 1(6), 26.

    Type: Article OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2958492418

    Crossref OpenAlex
76. Scheepers D (2019). Social identity theory BT . In: Sassenberg K, Vliek MLW, eds. Social Psychology in Action: Evidence-Based Interventions from Theory to Practice. Springer International Publishing;, 129.

    Type: Other

    Crossref
77. Nicholas Chown *Autistic author. Learn more… , Julia Leatherland (2021). Can a Person be ‘A Bit Autistic’? A Response to Francesca Happé and Uta Frith . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 51(2), 749-751. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10803-020-04541-0 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3034428382

    AutiHub · Autistic Scholars OpenAlex OpenCitations
78. Tajfel H. (1979). Organizational Identity: A Reader . Organizational Identity: A Reader, 56.

    Type: Other

    Crossref
79. (n.d.). Du Bois WEB. Strivings of the negro people. The Atlantic. 1897. https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1897/08/strivings-of-the-negro-people/305446/ (accessed July13 2020).

    Type: Other

    Crossref
80. Kimberlé Crenshaw (2021). Intersectionality . In Understanding Racism: Theories of Oppression and Discrimination (pp. 180-193). SAGE Publications, Inc..

    Type: Book chapter DOI: 10.4135/9781071818671.n13 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4316083775

    Crossref OpenAlex
81. Leon Festinger (1957). A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance . Stanford University Press.

    Type: Book DOI: 10.1515/9781503620766 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4300107936

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
82. Fulton R (n.d.). Sensory Trauma: Autism, Sensory Difference and the Daily Experience of Fear . Sensory Trauma: Autism, Sensory Difference and the Daily Experience of Fear.

    Type: Other

    Crossref
83. Kristen Bottema‐Beutel , Steven K. Kapp *Autistic author. Learn more… , Jessica Nina Lester , Noah J. Sasson , Brittany N. Hand (2021). Avoiding Ableist Language: Suggestions for Autism Researchers . Autism in Adulthood, 3(1), 18-29. SAGE Publications.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1089/aut.2020.0014 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3083347663

    AutiHub · Autistic Scholars Crossref OpenAlex
84. Hull L (2020). Hull L,, Petrides KV,, Mandy W. The female autism phenotype and camouflaging: A narrative review. Rev J Autism Dev Disord. 2020. DOI: 10. 1007/s40489-020-00197-9. Rev J Autism Dev Disord.

    Type: Other

    Crossref
85. María Tubío Fungueiriño , Sara Cruz , Adriana Sampaio , Angel Carracedo , Montse Fernández Prieto (2021). Social Camouflaging in Females with Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Systematic Review . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 51(7), 2190-2199. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10803-020-04695-x OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3085436973

    OpenAlex
86. Monique Botha *Autistic author. Learn more… , Jacqueline Hanlon , Gemma Williams *Autistic author. Learn more… (2023). Does Language Matter? Identity-First Versus Person-First Language Use in Autism Research: A Response to Vivanti . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 53(2), 870-878. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10803-020-04858-w OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3125099730

    AutiHub · Autistic Scholars OpenAlex
87. Melvin Seeman , Erving Goffman (1964). Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity. American Sociological Review, 29(5), 770. SAGE Publications.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.2307/2091442 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4297361601

    OpenAlex
88. Hodgetts S (2020). Sex/gender differences in the human brain . In: Koob GF, Salla SD, eds. Reference Module in Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Psychology. Elsevier Science;, 1.

    Type: Other

    Crossref
89. Tubío-Fungueiriño M (2020). Tubío-Fungueiriño M,, Cruz S,, Sampaio A,, Carracedo A,, Fernández-Prieto M. Social camouflaging in females with autism spectrum disorder: A systematic review. J Autism Dev Disord. 2020. doi.org/10. 1007/s10803-020-04695. J Autism Dev Disord.

    Type: Other

    Crossref
90. (n.d.). Lord C Rutter M DiLavore P Risi S Gotham K Bishop S. Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS-2) Modules 1–4. 2012.

    Type: Other

    Crossref
91. Lai M-C (2019). Lai M-C,, Lombardo MV,, Chakrabarti B, et al. Neural self-representation in autistic women and association with ‘compensatory camouflaging.’ Autism. 2019;23(5):1210–1223. Autism.

    Type: Other

    Crossref
92. Milton DEM (2012). Milton DEM. On the ontological status of autism: The ‘double empathy problem.’ Disability Soc. 2012;27(6):883–887. Disability Soc.

    Type: Other

    Crossref
93. Monique Botha *Autistic author. Learn more… , Jacqueline Hanlon , Gemma Williams *Autistic author. Learn more… (2020). Does language matter? Identity-first versus person-first language use in autism research: A response to Vivanti . Center for Open Science.

    Type: Preprint DOI: 10.31219/osf.io/75n83 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4240339336

    Crossref
94. (n.d.). Rose K. An autistic identity. 2019. https://theautisticadvocate.com/2019/03/an-autistic-identity/ (accessed June28 2020.)

    Type: Other

    Crossref
95. Wood-Downie H (2020). Wood-Downie H,, Wong B,, Kovshoff H,, Mandy W,, Hull L,, Hadwin JA. Sex/gender differences in camouflaging in children and adolescents with autism. J Autism Dev Disord. 2020. [Epub ahead of Print]. doi: 10. 1007/s10803-020-04615-z. J Autism Dev Disord.

    Type: Other

    Crossref
96. (n.d.). Montague A. How my son's autism diagnosis led to my own. 2018. https://www.scarymommy.com/how-my-sons-autism-diagnosis-led-to-my-own/ (accessed October14 2020).

    Type: Other

    Crossref
97. (n.d.). Siegler A. My son's diagnosis lead to my own. 2019. https://www.fierceautie.com/2019/02/my-sons-diagnosis-lead-to-my-own.html?m=1 (accessed October16 2020).

    Type: Other

    Crossref