Personal Pronoun Comprehension and Theory of Mind in Autistic Adults

Authors

Abstract

Purpose: Pronouns stitch together discourse by linking referents within and across sentences. Previous research has shown that people often rely on two strategies to interpret pronouns: the subject bias (assuming the pronoun refers to the subject of a prior sentence) and the repeated mention bias (assuming it refers to a person that was mentioned repeatedly). The present study seeks (a) to determine whether autistic adults make use of these strategies to the same degree as non-autistic adults with similar language skills and (b) to assess whether use of these strategies is correlated with theory of mind or vocabulary knowledge. Method: Native English-speaking autistic and non-autistic adults completed a pronoun comprehension task, as well as a modified version of Happe's Strange Stories task, the Vocabulary Size Test (VST), and the Autism Spectrum Quotient Test. Results: Both groups used both strategies most of the time with no reliable differences between the groups. Performance on the VST predicted use of the subject bias strategy. Conclusions: Autistic adults use some of the same strategies for interpreting ambiguous pronouns as non-autistic adults with similar language skills. Variation in subject bias strategy use is correlated with vocabulary knowledge, a sensitive measure of variation in language skills. Supplemental Material: https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.28598084

1. Michael H. Long , Jack C. Richards , Carol A. Chapelle , Susan Hunston (1988). The Cambridge applied linguistics series .

   Type: Book OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W292541374

   OpenAlex
2. Hourieh Ahadi , Maryam Mokhlesin , Behrooz Mahmoodi‐Bakhtiari (2017). Pattern of Syntactic Profile in Children with Autism: A Study on the Relation between Reception and Expression of Syntax . Journal of Modern Rehabilitation, 10(3), 98.

   Type: Article OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2594901164

   Crossref OpenAlex
3. ALEXANDRA PEROVIC , Nadezhda Modyanova *Autistic author. Learn more… , KEN WEXLER (2013). Comprehension of reflexive and personal pronouns in children with autism: A syntactic or pragmatic deficit? Applied Psycholinguistics, 34(4), 813-835. Cambridge University Press (CUP).

   Type: Article DOI: 10.1017/s0142716412000033 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2166544037

   AutiHub · Autistic Scholars Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
4. Tom Loucas , Tony Charman , Andrew Pickles , Emily Simonoff , Susie Chandler , David Meldrum et al. (2008). Autistic symptomatology and language ability in autism spectrum disorder and specific language impairment . Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49(11), 1184-1192. Wiley.

   Type: Article DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2008.01951.x OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W1596921332

   Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
5. González Moreno, Andrés Santiago (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders . American Psychiatric Association.

   Type: Book DOI: 10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4247665917

   Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
6. Andrew Kehler , Hannah Rohde (2019). Prominence and coherence in a Bayesian theory of pronoun interpretation . Journal of Pragmatics, 154, 63-78. Elsevier BV.

   Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/j.pragma.2018.04.006 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2803589147

   Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
7. Helen Tager‐Flusberg , Connie Kasari (2013). Minimally Verbal School‐Aged Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: The Neglected End of the Spectrum . Autism Research, 6(6), 468-478. Wiley.

   Type: Article DOI: 10.1002/aur.1329 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W1909988460

   Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
8. Arnold J. E. (1998). Reference form and discourse patterns [Doctoral dissertation Stanford University].

   Type: Other

   Crossref
9. Livia Colle , Simon Baron-Cohen , Sally Wheelwright , Heather K. J. van der Lely (2008). Narrative Discourse in Adults with High-Functioning Autism or Asperger Syndrome . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38(1), 28-40. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.

   Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10803-007-0357-5 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2041047461

   Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
10. Helen Tager-Flusberg , Robert M. Joseph (2003). Identifying neurocognitive phenotypes in autism . Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences, 358(1430), 303-314. The Royal Society.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2002.1198 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W1970339525

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
11. Jennifer E. Arnold , Loisa Bennetto , Joshua J. Diehl (2009). Reference production in young speakers with and without autism: Effects of discourse status and processing constraints . Cognition, 110(2), 131-146. Elsevier BV.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2008.10.016 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2025606229

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
12. Joyce Suh , Inge‐Marie Eigsti , Letitia Naigles , Marianne Barton , Elizabeth Kelley , Deborah Fein (2014). Narrative Performance of Optimal Outcome Children and Adolescents with a History of an Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 44(7), 1681-1694. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10803-014-2042-9 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W1980981374

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
13. Rebecca M. Banney , Keely Harper‐Hill , Wendy L. Arnott (2015). The Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule and narrative assessment: Evidence for specific narrative impairments in autism spectrum disorders . International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 17(2), 159-171. Informa UK Limited.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.3109/17549507.2014.977348 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2172172166

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
14. Tobias Schuwerk , Irina Jarvers , Maria Vuori , Beate Sodian (2016). Implicit Mentalizing Persists beyond Early Childhood and Is Profoundly Impaired in Children with Autism Spectrum Condition . Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 1696-1696. Frontiers Media SA.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01696 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2546312574

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
15. Yi Su , Lin-Yan Su (2015). Interpretation of Logical Words in Mandarin-Speaking Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders: Uncovering Knowledge of Semantics and Pragmatics . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 45(7), 1938-1950. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10803-014-2350-0 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W1982113248

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
16. Mihaela Barokova , Helen Tager‐Flusberg (2020). Person‐reference in autism spectrum disorder: Developmental trends and the role of linguistic input . Autism Research, 13(6), 959-969. Wiley.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1002/aur.2243 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2989768327

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
17. COURTENAY FRAZIER NORBURY , TRACEY GEMMELL , RHEA PAUL (2014). Pragmatics abilities in narrative production: a cross-disorder comparison . Journal of Child Language, 41(3), 485-510. Cambridge University Press (CUP).

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1017/s030500091300007x OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2112885032

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
18. Karen Condouris , Echo Meyer , Helen Tager-Flusberg (2003). The Relationship Between Standardized Measures of Language and Measures of Spontaneous Speech in Children With Autism . American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 12(3), 349-358. American Speech Language Hearing Association.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1044/1058-0360(2003/080) OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W1984338032

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
19. Simon Baron-Cohen , Alan M. Leslie , Uta Frith (1985). Does the autistic child have a “theory of mind”? Cognition, 21(1), 37-46. Elsevier BV.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/0010-0277(85)90022-8 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2093410327

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
20. Margaret M. Kjelgaard , Helen Tager-Flusberg (2001). An investigation of language impairment in autism: Implications for genetic subgroups . Language and Cognitive Processes, 16(2-3), 287-308. Informa UK Limited.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1080/01690960042000058 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2047852850

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
21. Coralie Chevallier , Deirdre Wilson , Francesca Happé , Ira Noveck (2010). Scalar Inferences in Autism Spectrum Disorders . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 40(9), 1104-1117. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10803-010-0960-8 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W1986601006

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
22. Simon Baron-Cohen , Sally Wheelwright , Richard Skinner , Joanne Martin , Emma Clubley (2001). The Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ): Evidence from Asperger Syndrome/High-Functioning Autism, Males and Females, Scientists and Mathematicians . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 31(1), 5-17. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1023/a:1005653411471 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2100254283

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
23. Francesca Happé (1995). The Role of Age and Verbal Ability in the Theory of Mind Task Performance of Subjects with Autism . Child Development, 66(3), 843. Oxford University Press (OUP).

    Type: Article DOI: 10.2307/1131954 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4232299271

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
24. Rosalind A. Crawley , Rosemary J. Stevenson (1990). Reference in single sentences and in texts . Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 19(3), 191-210. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/bf01077416 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W1989303661

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
25. Diana J. Burgess , Jennifer Warren , Sean Phelan , John Dovidio , Michelle van Ryn (2010). Stereotype Threat and Health Disparities: What Medical Educators and Future Physicians Need to Know . Journal of General Internal Medicine, 25(S2), 169-177. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s11606-009-1221-4 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2006053167

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
26. David Beglar (2010). A Rasch-based validation of the Vocabulary Size Test . Language Testing, 27(1), 101-118. SAGE Publications.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/0265532209340194 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2037170747

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
27. Yanru Chen , Brynn Siles , Helen Tager‐Flusberg (2024). Receptive language and receptive‐expressive discrepancy in minimally verbal autistic children and adolescents . Autism Research, 17(2), 381-394. Wiley.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1002/aur.3079 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4390274659

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
28. Elsi Kaiser , John C. Trueswell (2008). Interpreting pronouns and demonstratives in Finnish: Evidence for a form-specific approach to reference resolution . Language and Cognitive Processes, 23(5), 709-748. Informa UK Limited.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1080/01690960701771220 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2007180499

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
29. Monique Botha *Autistic author. Learn more… , David M. Frost (2020). Extending the Minority Stress Model to Understand Mental Health Problems Experienced by the Autistic Population . Society and Mental Health, 10(1), 20-34. SAGE Publications.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/2156869318804297 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2896204132

    AutiHub · Autistic Scholars Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
30. Nicole Landi (2010). An examination of the relationship between reading comprehension, higher-level and lower-level reading sub-skills in adults . Reading and Writing, 23(6), 701-717. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s11145-009-9180-z OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2129020634

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
31. Dan Sperber , Deirdre Wilson (1987). Précis of Relevance: Communication and Cognition . Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 10(4), 697-710. Cambridge University Press (CUP).

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1017/s0140525x00055345 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2018162611

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
32. Kristen Bottema‐Beutel , Steven K. Kapp *Autistic author. Learn more… , Jessica Nina Lester , Noah J. Sasson , Brittany N. Hand (2021). Avoiding Ableist Language: Suggestions for Autism Researchers . Autism in Adulthood, 3(1), 18-29. SAGE Publications.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1089/aut.2020.0014 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3083347663

    AutiHub · Autistic Scholars Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
33. Natalie V. Covington , Jake Kurczek , Melissa C. Duff , Sarah Brown-Schmidt (2020). The effect of repetition on pronoun resolution in patients with memory impairment . Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 42(2), 171-184. Informa UK Limited.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1080/13803395.2019.1699503 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2996358188

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
34. Lawrence D. Shriberg , Rhea Paul , Jane L. McSweeny , Ami Klin , Donald J. Cohen , Fred R. Volkmar (2001). Speech and Prosody Characteristics of Adolescents and Adults With High-Functioning Autism and Asperger Syndrome . Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 44(5), 1097-1115. American Speech Language Hearing Association.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1044/1092-4388(2001/087) OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2023087229

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
35. Albert T. Corbett , Frederick R. Chang (1983). Pronoun disambiguation: Accessing potential antecedents . Memory & Cognition, 11(3), 283-294. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.3758/bf03196975 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2087003976

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
36. Peter C. Gordon , Kimberly A. Scearce (1995). Pronominalization and discourse coherence, discourse structure and pronoun interpretation . Memory & Cognition, 23(3), 313-323. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.3758/bf03197233 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2023678302

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
37. Priscilla Burnham Riosa , Victoria Chan , Andrea Maughan , Victoria Stables , Carly Albaum , Jonathan A. Weiss (2017). Remediating Deficits or Increasing Strengths in Autism Spectrum Disorder Research: a Content Analysis . Advances in Neurodevelopmental Disorders, 1(3), 113-121. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s41252-017-0027-3 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2623254001

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
38. Naomi Fisher , Francesca Happé , Judy Dunn (2005). The relationship between vocabulary, grammar, and false belief task performance in children with autistic spectrum disorders and children with moderate learning difficulties . Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46(4), 409-419. Wiley.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00371.x OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2094694442

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
39. Penny M. Pexman (2008). It's Fascinating Research . Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17(4), 286-290. SAGE Publications.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-8721.2008.00591.x OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2030448677

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
40. Peter C. Gordon , Barbara J. Grosz , Laura A. Gilliom (1993). Pronouns, Names, and the Centering of Attention in Discourse . Cognitive Science, 17(3), 311-347. Wiley.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1207/s15516709cog1703_1 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2040025108

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
41. Gilbert MacKay , Adrienne Shaw (2004). A comparative study of figurative language in children with autistic spectrum disorders . Child Language Teaching and Therapy, 20(1), 13-32. SAGE Publications.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1191/0265659004ct261oa OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2054230270

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
42. Morton Ann Gernsbacher , David J Hargreaves (1988). Accessing sentence participants: The advantage of first mention . Journal of Memory and Language, 27(6), 699-717. Elsevier BV.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/0749-596x(88)90016-2 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2166895198

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
43. Batia Laufer , Paul Nation (1999). A vocabulary-size test of controlled productive ability . Language Testing, 16(1), 33-51. SAGE Publications.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/026553229901600103 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2047328202

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
44. Lara Hochstein , Alan Bale , David Barner (2018). Scalar Implicature in Absence of Epistemic Reasoning? The Case of Autism Spectrum Disorder . Language Learning and Development, 14(3), 224-240. Informa UK Limited.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1080/15475441.2017.1343670 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2761911053

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
45. Chelsea La Valle , Karen Chenausky , Helen Tager-Flusberg (2021). How do minimally verbal children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder use communicative gestures to complement their spoken language abilities? Autism & Developmental Language Impairments, 6, 23969415211035065. SAGE Publications.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/23969415211035065 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3189922455

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
46. Henry M Wellman , David Liu (2004). Scaling of Theory-of-Mind Tasks . Child Development, 75(2), 523-541. Oxford University Press (OUP).

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00691.x OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2053153882

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
47. Rosalind A. Crawley , Rosemary J. Stevenson , David Kleinman (1990). The use of heuristic strategies in the interpretation of pronouns . Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 19(4), 245-264. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/bf01077259 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2092714929

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
48. Joshua K. Hartshorne , Jesse Snedeker (2013). Verb argument structure predicts implicit causality: The advantages of finer-grained semantics . Language and Cognitive Processes, 28(10), 1474-1508. Informa UK Limited.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1080/01690965.2012.689305 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2117932246

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
49. Davies M. (2021). Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA)—Text and data mining (V7). UCLA Dataverse. https://dataverse.ucla.edu/dataset.xhtml?persistentId=doi:10 . 25346/S6/Z36KRR

    Type: Other

    Crossref
50. Rumbidzai Ndoro (2010). The Assessment of Autism Spectrum Disorders . Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 15(1), 64-64. Wiley.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1111/j.1475-3588.2009.00554_1.x OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2056045397

    OpenAlex
51. Jean Decety , Margarita Svetlova (2012). Putting together phylogenetic and ontogenetic perspectives on empathy . Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 2(1), 1-24. Elsevier BV.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/j.dcn.2011.05.003 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2109917285

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
52. Helen Tager‐Flusberg , Rhea Paul , Catherine Lord (2005). Language and Communication in Autism . In Handbook of Autism and Pervasive Developmental Disorders (pp. 335-364). Wiley.

    Type: Book chapter DOI: 10.1002/9780470939345.ch12 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3023975726

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
53. Robert A. Peterson , Dwight R. Merunka (2014). Convenience samples of college students and research reproducibility . Journal of Business Research, 67(5), 1035-1041. Elsevier BV.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/j.jbusres.2013.08.010 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2071582555

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
54. Henrica C.W. de Vet , Lidwine B. Mokkink , David G. Mosmuller , Caroline B. Terwee (2017). Spearman–Brown prophecy formula and Cronbach's alpha: different faces of reliability and opportunities for new applications . Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 85, 45-49. Elsevier BV.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.01.013 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2602968150

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
55. Ingerith Martin , Skye McDonald (2004). An Exploration of Causes of Non-Literal Language Problems in Individuals with Asperger Syndrome . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 34(3), 311-328. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1023/b:jadd.0000029553.52889.15 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2075471029

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
56. Lloyd M. Dunn , Douglas M. Dunn (2012). Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test--Fourth Edition . PsycTESTS Dataset. American Psychological Association (APA).

    Type: Dataset DOI: 10.1037/t15144-000 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4236522376

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
57. Lucy A. Livingston , Punit Shah , Sarah J. White , Francesca Happé (2021). Further developing the Frith–Happé animations: A quicker, more objective, and web‐based test of theory of mind for autistic and neurotypical adults . Autism Research, 14(9), 1905-1912. Wiley.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1002/aur.2575 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3162506685

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
58. Soile Loukusa , Irma Moilanen (2009). Pragmatic inference abilities in individuals with Asperger syndrome or high-functioning autism. A review . Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 3(4), 890-904. Elsevier BV.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/j.rasd.2009.05.002 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2080131818

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
59. Elizabeth G Finnegan , Kristie Asaro-Saddler , Matthew C. Zajic (2021). Production and comprehension of pronouns in individuals with autism: A meta-analysis and systematic review . Autism, 25(1), 3-17. SAGE Publications.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/1362361320949103 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3080699285

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
60. Susan Kemper , Aaron Sumner (2001). The structure of verbal abilities in young and older adults. Psychology and Aging, 16(2), 312-322. American Psychological Association (APA).

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1037/0882-7974.16.2.312 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2084618255

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
61. H Wimmer (1983). Beliefs about beliefs: Representation and constraining function of wrong beliefs in young children's understanding of deception . Cognition, 13(1), 103-128. Elsevier BV.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/0010-0277(83)90004-5 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2139188400

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
62. Su-Fen Huang , Manabu Oi , Aiko Taguchi (2015). Comprehension of figurative language in Taiwanese children with autism: The role of theory of mind and receptive vocabulary . Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics, 29(8-10), 764-775. Informa UK Limited.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.3109/02699206.2015.1027833 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2091136372

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
63. Morton Ann Gernsbacher , Melanie Yergeau *Autistic author. Learn more… (2019). Empirical failures of the claim that autistic people lack a theory of mind. Archives of Scientific Psychology, 7(1), 102-118. American Psychological Association (APA).

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1037/arc0000067 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2994917579

    AutiHub · Autistic Scholars Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
64. Goldstein S. (2009). Assessment of autism spectrum disorders . Assessment of autism spectrum disorders.

    Type: Other

    Crossref
65. Elyce D. Johnson , Jennifer E. Arnold (2023). The frequency of referential patterns guides pronoun comprehension. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 49(8), 1325-1344. American Psychological Association (APA).

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1037/xlm0001137 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4280539892

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
66. Elizabeth Bates Judith C. Goodman (1997). On the Inseparability of Grammar and the Lexicon: Evidence from Acquisition, Aphasia and Real-time Processing . Language and Cognitive Processes, 12(5-6), 507-584. Informa UK Limited.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1080/016909697386628 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2105962878

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
67. A. Ting Wang , Susan S. Lee , Marian Sigman , Mirella Dapretto (2006). Neural basis of irony comprehension in children with autism: the role of prosody and context . Brain, 129(4), 932-943. Oxford University Press (OUP).

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1093/brain/awl032 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2151929612

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
68. Eya-Mist Rødgaard , Kristian Jensen , Jean-Noël Vergnes , Isabelle Soulières , Laurent Mottron (2019). Temporal Changes in Effect Sizes of Studies Comparing Individuals With and Without Autism . JAMA Psychiatry, 76(11), 1124. American Medical Association (AMA).

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2019.1956 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2969781297

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
69. Ronit Saban-Bezalel , Dror Dolfin , Nathaniel Laor , Nira Mashal (2019). Irony comprehension and mentalizing ability in children with and without Autism Spectrum Disorder . Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 58, 30-38. Elsevier BV.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/j.rasd.2018.11.006 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2903253356

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
70. H. Rohde , A. Kehler (2014). Grammatical and information-structural influences on pronoun production . Language, Cognition and Neuroscience, 29(8), 912-927. Informa UK Limited.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1080/01690965.2013.854918 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2102597828

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
71. H. P. Grice (1975). Logic and Conversation . In Speech Acts (pp. 41-58). BRILL.

    Type: Book chapter DOI: 10.1163/9789004368811_003 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2264742718

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
72. Grosz, Barbara , Weinstein, Scott , Joshi, Aravind (1995). Centering: A Framework for Modeling the Local Coherence of Discourse . Computational Linguistics, 21(2), 203.

    Type: Article OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W6999244237

    Crossref OpenAlex
73. Lucy Anne Livingston , Bethany Carr , Punit Shah (2019). Recent Advances and New Directions in Measuring Theory of Mind in Autistic Adults . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 49(4), 1738-1744. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10803-018-3823-3 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2903376337

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
74. Judith Pijnacker , Peter Hagoort , Jan K. Buitelaar , Jan-Pieter Teunisse , Bart Geurts (2009). Pragmatic Inferences in High-Functioning Adults with Autism and Asperger Syndrome . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 39(4), 607-618. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10803-008-0661-8 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2108700786

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
75. Francesca Happé (1994). An advanced test of theory of mind: Understanding of story characters' thoughts and feelings by able autistic, mentally handicapped, and normal children and adults . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 24(2), 129-154. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/bf02172093 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2116139040

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
76. Michelle M. Hughes , Kelly A. Shaw , Monica DiRienzo , Maureen S. Durkin , Amy Esler , Jennifer Hall-Lande et al. (2023). The Prevalence and Characteristics of Children With Profound Autism, 15 Sites, United States, 2000-2016 . Public Health Reports®, 138(6), 971-980. SAGE Publications.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/00333549231163551 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4366352830

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
77. Daphna Harel , Deanna Goudelias , Hung-Shao Cheng , Melissa M. Baese-Berk , Rachel M. Theodore , Susannah V. Levi (2024). Examining the Relationship Between Multiple Tests of Receptive Vocabulary . Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 67(2), 595-605. American Speech Language Hearing Association.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1044/2023_jslhr-22-00617 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4391161063

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
78. Connor Tom Keating (2021). Participatory Autism Research: How Consultation Benefits Everyone . Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 713982-713982. Frontiers Media SA.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.713982 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3193937630

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
79. JOSHUA K. HARTSHORNE , REBECCA NAPPA , Jesse Snedeker (2015). Development of the first-mention bias . Journal of Child Language, 42(2), 423-446. Cambridge University Press (CUP).

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1017/s0305000914000075 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2115432564

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
80. Katherine M Keyes , Ezra Susser , Keely Cheslack-Postava , Christine Fountain , Kayuet Liu , Peter S Bearman (2012). Cohort effects explain the increase in autism diagnosis among children born from 1992 to 2003 in California . International Journal of Epidemiology, 41(2), 495-503. Oxford University Press (OUP).

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1093/ije/dyr193 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2159197552

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
81. David Premack , Guy Woodruff (1978). Does the chimpanzee have a theory of mind? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 1(4), 515-526. Cambridge University Press (CUP).

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1017/s0140525x00076512 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2141538250

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
82. Juhani Järvikivi , Roger P.G. van Gompel , Jukka Hyönä , Raymond Bertram (2005). Ambiguous Pronoun Resolution . Psychological Science, 16(4), 260-264. SAGE Publications.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1111/j.0956-7976.2005.01525.x OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2169985884

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
83. Fred R. Volkmar , James C. McPartland (2014). From Kanner to DSM-5: Autism as an Evolving Diagnostic Concept . Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 10(1), 193-212. Annual Reviews.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032813-153710 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2154432610

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
84. Alix S. Winter , Christine Fountain , Keely Cheslack-Postava , Peter S. Bearman (2020). The social patterning of autism diagnoses reversed in California between 1992 and 2018 . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 117(48), 30295-30302. National Academy of Sciences.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2015762117 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3101169093

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
85. Gemma Williams *Autistic author. Learn more… (2021). Theory of autistic mind: A renewed relevance theoretic perspective on so-called autistic pragmatic ‘impairment’ . Journal of Pragmatics, 180, 121-130. Elsevier BV.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/j.pragma.2021.04.032 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3164271390

    AutiHub · Autistic Scholars Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
86. Megan Lyons , Elizabeth Schoen Simmons , Rhea Paul (2014). Prosodic Development in Middle Childhood and Adolescence in High‐Functioning Autism . Autism Research, 7(2), 181-196. Wiley.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1002/aur.1355 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2160675621

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
87. Jeannette Schaeffer , Muna Abd El-Raziq , Elena Castroviejo , Stephanie Durrleman , Sandrine Ferré , Ileana Grama et al. (2023). Language in autism: domains, profiles and co-occurring conditions . Journal of Neural Transmission, 130(3), 433-457. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s00702-023-02592-y OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4327616887

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
88. Walter Schaeken , Marie Van Haeren , Valentina Bambini (2018). The Understanding of Scalar Implicatures in Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder: Dichotomized Responses to Violations of Informativeness . Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 1266-1266. Frontiers Media SA.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01266 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2883337369

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
89. Yongning Song , Ziyun Nie , Jiatong Shan (2024). Comprehension of irony in autistic children: The role of theory of mind and executive function . Autism Research, 17(1), 109-124. Wiley.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1002/aur.3051 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4388593764

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
90. Dorit Kliemann , Ralph Adolphs (2018). The social neuroscience of mentalizing: challenges and recommendations . Current Opinion in Psychology, 24, 1-6. Elsevier BV.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2018.02.015 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2788119703

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
91. Felicity Klopper , Renee Testa , Christos Pantelis , Efstratios Skafidas (2017). A cluster analysis exploration of autism spectrum disorder subgroups in children without intellectual disability . Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 36, 66-78. Elsevier BV.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/j.rasd.2017.01.006 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2586394755

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
92. Letitia R. Naigles , Michelle Cheng , Nan Xu Rattanasone , Saime Tek , Neha Khetrapal , Deborah Fein et al. (2016). “You’re telling me!” The prevalence and predictors of pronoun reversals in children with autism spectrum disorders and typical development . Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 27, 11-20. Elsevier BV.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/j.rasd.2016.03.008 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2319888905

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
93. Kenza Latrèche , Michel Godel , Martina Franchini , Fiona Journal , Nada Kojovic , Marie Schaer (2024). Early trajectories and moderators of autistic language profiles: A longitudinal study in preschoolers . Autism, 28(12), 3043-3062. SAGE Publications.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/13623613241253015 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4398182641

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
94. Eleonora Marocchini (2023). Impairment or difference? The case of Theory of Mind abilities and pragmatic competence in the Autism Spectrum . Applied Psycholinguistics, 44(3), 365-383. Cambridge University Press (CUP).

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1017/s0142716423000024 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4318833846

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
95. Cheong Ying Sng , Mark Carter , Jennifer Stephenson (2018). A systematic review of the comparative pragmatic differences in conversational skills of individuals with autism . Autism & Developmental Language Impairments, 3. SAGE Publications.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/2396941518803806 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2893067749

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
96. Greta Mazzaggio , Francesca Foppolo , Remo Job , Luca Surian (2021). Ad-hoc and scalar implicatures in children with autism spectrum disorder . Journal of Communication Disorders, 90, 106089. Elsevier BV.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/j.jcomdis.2021.106089 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3132803395

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
97. I. S. P. Nation (2022). Learning Vocabulary in Another Language . Cambridge University Press.

    Type: Book DOI: 10.1017/9781009093873 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4281703335

    Crossref OpenAlex
98. Anna Urbanowicz , Christina Nicolaidis , Jacquiline den Houting *Autistic author. Learn more… , Stephen M. Shore , Katie Gaudion , Sonya Girdler et al. (2019). An Expert Discussion on Strengths-Based Approaches in Autism . Autism in Adulthood, 1(2), 82-89. SAGE Publications.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1089/aut.2019.29002.aju OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2938939260

    AutiHub · Autistic Scholars Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
99. Nation P. (2017). Vocabulary lists . Vocabulary lists.

    Type: Other

    Crossref
100. Nation P. (2007). A vocabulary size test . The Language Teacher, 31(7), 9.

     Type: Other

     Crossref
101. Davies, Mark (2021). Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA) . California Digital Library. UCLA Dataverse.

     Type: Dataset DOI: 10.25346/s6/z36krr OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W6889134853

     OpenAlex