Autism Prevalence and the Intersectionality of Assigned Sex at Birth, Race, and Ethnicity on Age of Diagnosis

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Goldblum, J., McFayden, T., Bristol, S., Putnam, O., Wylie, A., & Harrop, C. (2023). Autism Prevalence and the Intersectionality of Assigned Sex at Birth, Race, and Ethnicity on Age of Diagnosis. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 54(10), 3777-3791. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-023-06104-5

Publication date: 16 Aug 2023 Added to AutiHub: 27 Sep 2026 Type: Article Article language: English
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Authors

Publication authors
6
Publication authors identified as autistic
1 / 6 (16.7%)
  1. Jessica Goldblum
  2. Tyler McFayden
  3. Stephanie Bristol
  1. Orla Putnam *
  2. Amanda Wylie
  3. Clare Harrop

Abstract

PURPOSE: An official autism diagnosis is required to access timely intervention and is associated with better long-term wellbeing and mental health. Certain demographic characteristics, such as being female or a racially or ethnically minoritized youth, have been associated with significant diagnostic lag. However, it remains unclear how assigned sex, race, and ethnicity interact with each other in predicting the prevalence and age of autism diagnosis. METHODS: To examine the interactions between assigned sex, race, and ethnicity, we used data from the National Survey of Children's Health (NSCH; 2016 > 2021). RESULTS: One in 38 children had an autism diagnosis and 3.8 males were diagnosed per 1 female. Hierarchical linear regressions yielded diagnostic delays in some females, particularly those who were non-Hispanic white, Black, and Asian. Ethnic and racial minority children had significantly earlier diagnoses than white and non-Hispanic children when not accounting for sex. CONCLUSION: This study demonstrates slight increases in reported autism prevalence, a diagnostic lag in some autistic females that was strongly associated with ethnicity, and earlier diagnoses in racial and ethnic minority youth, a finding that may be explained by factors associated with phenotypic differences. This study has important implications for the diagnosis of minority autistic youth, particularly females and females who are non-Hispanic, who may experience a greater propensity for diagnostic delays.

Bibliography cited by this reference

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Cited bibliography overview

These indicators describe the bibliography cited by this publication. An author name is counted each time it appears in one cited reference, so the same person can be counted more than once. Names not yet linked to an author already present in AutiHub are treated as unknown, not as non-autistic. Last computed: 2 Oct 2026 11:55.

Cited references
63
With a DOI
60
Without a DOI, from raw bibliography text
3
3 / 63 (4.8%) cited references include at least one author identified as autistic.
References with data to complete
5 / 63 (7.9%)
References with detected author names
61 / 63 (96.8%)
Without detected author names
2
Without a structured title
5
Without a stable identifier
3
References with raw author names still to review
2
References with external metadata lookup issues
0
These indicators apply to cited references displayed on this page, after technical duplicates have been merged. A reference without a DOI can still support author statistics when a title and author names are available.
Author names detected in the cited bibliography
479
From DOI or external metadata
479
From validated raw bibliography text
0
Raw names already validated
0
Raw names still to review
2
93 / 479 (19.4%) names are linked to an author already present in AutiHub. 386 / 479 (80.6%) names are not yet linked.
Names linked to a person identified as autistic
5 / 479 (1.0%)
Calculated across all author names detected in the cited bibliography. Among names linked to an author already present in AutiHub: 5 / 93 (5.4%). Distinct people identified as autistic: 5 / 378 (1.3%).
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