Express yourself! A comparison of how autistic boys and girls communicate through joint attention and expressive Language

This publication is included in the Autistic Autism Scholarship Project. one author of this publication is identified as autistic in the project.

About the autistic author marker

Metadata sources used for this reference

OpenAlex Crossref OpenCitations
Learn more about the sources used

Hodge, G., Zhao, V. Y., & Aitken, D. (2026). Express yourself! A comparison of how autistic boys and girls communicate through joint attention and expressive Language. Current Psychology, 45(5). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-025-08737-4

Publication date: 17 Feb 2026 Added to AutiHub: 17 Sep 2026 Type: Article Article language: English
Publisher source (DOI) Full text OpenAlex source

This publication is integrated into AutiHub through:

Authors

Publication authors
3
Publication authors identified as autistic
1 / 3 (33.3%)
  1. Grace Hodge *
  2. Vicky Yiran Zhao
  3. Debbie Aitken

Abstract

Abstract Language and communication differences are core characteristics of autism, but few studies have explored the associations of joint attention and communication behaviours in young autistic children. The current study explores caregiver-reported measures of expressive language and joint attention behaviours from birth to age 3, noting differences between autistic and non-autistic children, as well as gender differences. Secondary data analyses exploring links between different aspects of expressive language and joint attention on the Longitudinal Study of Australian Children population cohort. multivariate test of means statistical analysis conducted in StataMP17 to explore the associations of expressive language, joint attention, autism, and gender. Statistically significant differences between autistic and non-autistic children for all but one of the variables regarding joint attention and expressive language. Differences in social pretend play and number of words known at age 3 between autistic and non-autistic children were most statistically significant. Joint attention measures are effective in differentiating autistic and non-autistic boys. Social pretend play at age 3 is also effective in differentiating autistic and non-autistic girls, and autistic boys and girls. It is highly likely to be able to differentiate between autistic boys and girls through social pretend play behaviours at age 3. These differences were observed despite the small sample size of only girls, and the analyses suggested that social pretend play behaviours may be more important differentiators of autistic boys and girls than speech or language outcomes. The implications of these findings for education and diagnostic approaches are discussed.

Bibliography cited by this reference

Cited references are imported from external metadata sources when they are available. The list may be partial.

Cited bibliography overview

These indicators describe the bibliography cited by this publication. An author name is counted each time it appears in one cited reference, so the same person can be counted more than once. Names not yet linked to an author already present in AutiHub are treated as unknown, not as non-autistic. Last computed: 20 Sep 2026 01:01.

Cited references
92
With a DOI
82
Without a DOI, from raw bibliography text
10
1 / 92 (1.1%) cited references include at least one author identified as autistic.
References with data to complete
8 / 92 (8.7%)
References with detected author names
85 / 92 (92.4%)
Without detected author names
7
Without a structured title
8
Without a stable identifier
10
References with raw author names still to review
7
References with external metadata lookup issues
1
These indicators apply to cited references displayed on this page, after technical duplicates have been merged. A reference without a DOI can still support author statistics when a title and author names are available.
Author names detected in the cited bibliography
385
From DOI or external metadata
385
From validated raw bibliography text
0
Raw names already validated
0
Raw names still to review
9
99 / 385 (25.7%) names are linked to an author already present in AutiHub. 286 / 385 (74.3%) names are not yet linked.
Names linked to a person identified as autistic
1 / 385 (0.3%)
Calculated across all author names detected in the cited bibliography. Among names linked to an author already present in AutiHub: 1 / 99 (1.0%). Distinct people identified as autistic: 1 / 341 (0.3%).
  1. Michael Rutter (1978). Diagnosis and Definition . In Autism (pp. 1-25). Springer US.
    Type: Book chapter DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4684-0787-7_1 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W109381615
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  2. Angelika Anderson , Dennis W. Moore , Rebecca Godfrey , Claire M. Fletcher-Flinn (2004). Social skills assessment of children with autism in free-play situations . Autism, 8(4), 369-385. SAGE Publications.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/1362361304045216 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2113694242
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  3. Mireille Smits-van der Nat , Femke van der Wilt , Martijn Meeter , Chiel van der Veen (2024). The Value of Pretend Play for Social Competence in Early Childhood: A Meta-analysis . Educational Psychology Review, 36(2). Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10648-024-09884-z OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4395449989
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  4. Lynn Loutzenhiser , Pamela Mcauslan , Donald P. Sharpe (2015). The trajectory of maternal and paternal fatigue and factors associated with fatigue across the transition to parenthood . Clinical Psychologist, 19(1), 15-27. Informa UK Limited.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1111/cp.12048 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W1550412783
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  5. Attwood, T. (2006). The pattern of abilities and development of girls with asperger’s syndrome. In T. Attwood & T. Grandin (Eds.), Asperger’s and girls (pp. 1–7). Future Horizons.
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  6. Neil Humphrey , Wendy Symes (2011). Peer interaction patterns among adolescents with autistic spectrum disorders (ASDs) in mainstream school settings . Autism, 15(4), 397-419. SAGE Publications.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/1362361310387804 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2151280987
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  7. Simon Baron-Cohen (2010). Empathizing, systemizing, and the extreme male brain theory of autism . In Progress in Brain Research (pp. 167-175). Elsevier.
    Type: Book chapter DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-444-53630-3.00011-7 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W1603359069
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  8. Felicity Sedgewick , Vivian Hill , Rhiannon Yates , Leanne Pickering , Elizabeth Pellicano (2016). Gender Differences in the Social Motivation and Friendship Experiences of Autistic and Non-autistic Adolescents . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 46(4), 1297-1306. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10803-015-2669-1 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2199714476
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  9. Kerstin Nyström , Kerstin Öhrling (2004). Parenthood experiences during the child's first year: literature review . Journal of Advanced Nursing, 46(3), 319-330. Wiley.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2648.2004.02991.x OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W1970046478
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  10. Lise Bourson , Camille Prevost (2024). Characteristics of restricted interests in girls with ASD compared to boys: a systematic review of the literature . European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 33(4), 987-1004. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s00787-022-01998-5 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4281729438
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  11. Virginia C. Salo , Meredith L. Rowe , Bethany C. Reeb‐Sutherland (2018). Exploring Infant Gesture and Joint Attention as Related Constructs and as Predictors of Later Language . Infancy, 23(3), 432-452. Wiley.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1111/infa.12229 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2790062214
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  12. Michael Morales , PETER MUNDY , Jennifer Rojas (1998). Following the direction of gaze and language development in 6-month-olds . Infant Behavior and Development, 21(2), 373-377. Elsevier BV.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/s0163-6383(98)90014-5 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W1971944659
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  13. Pia Bradshaw , Claire Pickett , Mieke L van Driel , Katie Brooker , Anna Urbanowicz (2021). ‘Autistic’ or ‘with autism’? Why the way general practitioners view and talk about autism matters . Australian Journal of General Practice, 50(3), 104-108. The Royal Australian College of General Practitioners.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.31128/ajgp-11-20-5721 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3130813437
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  14. Jan Burns , Siobhan Tierney (2023). Principles of Gender-Specific Medicine . In Principles of Gender-Specific Medicine (pp. 805). Elsevier.
    Type: Book chapter DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-323-88534-8.00046-8 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4366669006
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  15. Pamela Wolfberg , Mila DeWitt , Gregory S. Young , Thanh Nguyen (2015). Integrated Play Groups: Promoting Symbolic Play and Social Engagement with Typical Peers in Children with ASD Across Settings . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 45(3), 830-845. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10803-014-2245-0 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W1975186027
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  16. Madeleine Bruce , Tyler C. McFayden , Thomas H. Ollendick , Martha Ann Bell (2022). Expressive language in infancy and toddlerhood: The roles of child temperament and maternal parenting behaviors . Developmental Psychobiology, 64(6), e22287-e22287. Wiley.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1002/dev.22287 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4283463721
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  17. Julia Yurkovic-Harding , Grace Lisandrelli , Rebecca C. Shaffer , Kelli C. Dominick , Ernest V. Pedapati , Craig A. Erickson et al. (2022). Children with ASD establish joint attention during free-flowing toy play without face looks . Current Biology, 32(12), 2739-2746.e4. Elsevier BV.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2022.04.044 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4280621803
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  18. Warren Jones , Ami Klin (2013). Attention to eyes is present but in decline in 2–6-month-old infants later diagnosed with autism . Nature, 504(7480), 427-431. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1038/nature12715 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W1993793414
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  19. Susan E. Bryson (1996). Brief report: Epidemiology of autism . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 26(2), 165-167. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/bf02172005 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2000037184
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  20. Julie Osterling , Géraldine Dawson (1994). Early recognition of children with autism: A study of first birthday home videotapes . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 24(3), 247-257. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/bf02172225 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2012165208
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  21. Stephen Camarata (2014). Early identification and early intervention in autism spectrum disorders: Accurate and effective? International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 16(1), 1-10. Informa UK Limited.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.3109/17549507.2013.858773 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2136487207
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  22. Clayton W. Schupp , David Simon , Blythe A. Corbett (2013). Cortisol Responsivity Differences in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders During Free and Cooperative Play . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 43(10), 2405-2417. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10803-013-1790-2 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2016690999
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  23. Malinda Carpenter , Katherine Nagell , Michael Tomasello , George Butterworth , Chris Moore (1998). Social Cognition, Joint Attention, and Communicative Competence from 9 to 15 Months of Age . Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 63(4), i. Oxford University Press (OUP).
    Type: Article DOI: 10.2307/1166214 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2020546074
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  24. Aoife Munroe , Michele Dunleavy (2023). Recognising autism in girls within the education context: reflecting on the internal presentation and the diagnostic criteria . Irish Educational Studies, 42(4), 561-581. Informa UK Limited.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1080/03323315.2023.2260371 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4387023152
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  25. Tony Charman (2006). Social and Communication Development in Autism Spectrum Disorders: Early Identification, Diagnosis, and Intervention . Social and Communication Development in Autism Spectrum Disorders: Early Identification, Diagnosis, and Intervention.
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  26. Meredith L. Cola , Samantha Plate , Lisa Yankowitz , Victoria Petrulla , Leila Bateman , Casey J. Zampella et al. (2020). Sex differences in the first impressions made by girls and boys with autism . Molecular Autism, 11(1), 1. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1186/s13229-020-00336-3 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3035044117
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  27. A. de Vries , Ilse Noens , Peggy T. Cohen-Kettenis , Ina A. van Berckelaer-Onnes , Theo A. Doreleijers (2010). Autism Spectrum Disorders in Gender Dysphoric Children and Adolescents . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 40(8), 930-936. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10803-010-0935-9 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2025946704
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  28. Katarzyna Chawarska , Ami Klin , Fred Volkmar (2003). Automatic Attention Cueing Through Eye Movement in 2-Year-Old Children With Autism . Child Development, 74(4), 1108-1122. Oxford University Press (OUP).
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1111/1467-8624.00595 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2051872279
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  29. Gedeon O. Deák , Ross A. Flom , Anne D. Pick (2000). Effects of gesture and target on 12- and 18-month-olds' joint visual attention to objects in front of or behind them. Developmental Psychology, 36(4), 511-523. American Psychological Association (APA).
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1037/0012-1649.36.4.511 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2047471233
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  30. Katarzyna Chawarska , Suzanne Macari , Kelly Powell , Lauren DiNicola , Frederick Shic (2016). Enhanced Social Attention in Female Infant Siblings at Risk for Autism . Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 55(3), 188-195.e1. Elsevier BV.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/j.jaac.2015.11.016 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2211975889
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  31. Mikhail Kissine , Ariane Saint-Denis , Laurent Mottron (2023). Language acquisition can be truly atypical in autism: Beyond joint attention . Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 153, 105384. Elsevier BV.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2023.105384 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4386505808
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  32. Y.-L. Chien , S. S.-F. Gau , C.-Y. Shang , Y.-N. Chiu , W.-C. Tsai , Y.-Y Wu (2015). Visual memory and sustained attention impairment in youths with autism spectrum disorders . Psychological Medicine, 45(11), 2263-2273. Cambridge University Press (CUP).
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1017/s0033291714003201 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2216771119
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  33. Angela Gialamas , Murthy N. Mittinty , Michael G. Sawyer , Stephen R. Zubrick , John Lynch (2014). Child care quality and children's cognitive and socio-emotional development: an Australian longitudinal study . Early Child Development and Care, 184(7), 977-997. Informa UK Limited.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1080/03004430.2013.847835 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2063396465
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  34. Zixuan Guo , Xinyue Tang , Shu Xiao , Hong Yan , Shilin Sun , Zibin Yang et al. (2024). Systematic review and meta-analysis: multimodal functional and anatomical neural alterations in autism spectrum disorder . Molecular Autism, 15(1), 16-16. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1186/s13229-024-00593-6 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4393950167
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  35. Clare Harrop , Stephanie Shire , Amanda Gulsrud , Ya-Chih Chang , Eric Ishijima , Kathy Lawton et al. (2015). Does Gender Influence Core Deficits in ASD? An Investigation into Social-Communication and Play of Girls and Boys with ASD . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 45(3), 766-777. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10803-014-2234-3 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2065363232
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  36. Meredith Cola , Lisa D. Yankowitz , Kimberly Tena , Alison Russell , Leila Bateman , Azia Knox et al. (2022). Friend matters: sex differences in social language during autism diagnostic interviews . Molecular Autism, 13(1), 5. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1186/s13229-021-00483-1 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4205415106
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  37. Meng-Chuan Lai , Michael Lombardo , Bonnie Auyeung , Bhismadev Chakrabarti , Simon Baron-Cohen (2015). Sex/Gender Differences and Autism: Setting the Scene for Future Research . Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 54(1), 11-24. Elsevier BV.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/j.jaac.2014.10.003 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2069328123
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  38. Blythe A. Corbett , Clayton W Schupp , David Simon , Niles Ryan , Sally Mendoza (2010). Elevated cortisol during play is associated with age and social engagement in children with autism . Molecular Autism, 1(1), 13. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1186/2040-2392-1-13 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2158236188
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  39. NewFAMS team Creators/Copyright Holders , Claire Hughes , NewFAMS team Contributors , Sarah Foley , Rory T. Devine , Andrew Ribner et al. (2020). Worrying in the wings? Negative emotional birth memories in mothers and fathers show similar associations with perinatal mood disturbance and delivery mode . Archives of Women's Mental Health, 23(3), 371-377. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s00737-019-00973-5 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2953717248
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  40. Rachel M. Hiller , Robyn L. Young , Nathan Weber (2014). Sex Differences in Autism Spectrum Disorder based on DSM-5 Criteria: Evidence from Clinician and Teacher Reporting . Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 42(8), 1381-1393. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10802-014-9881-x OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2077948545
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  41. Linda W. David , Nina Stenberg , Trond H. Diseth , Sissel Berge Helverschou , Cecilie Bjertness Nyquist , Roald A. Øien et al. (2025). Autistic Characteristics in a Nationally Representative Clinical Sample of Adolescents Seeking Medical Gender-Affirming Treatment in Norway . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 55(1), 147-157. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10803-023-06181-6 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4389394403
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  43. Dorian de Haan , Anne-Greth Vriens-van Hoogdalem , Kirti Zeijlmans , Jan Boom (2021). Metacommunication in social pretend play: two dimensions . International Journal of Early Years Education, 29(4), 405-419. Informa UK Limited.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1080/09669760.2020.1778451 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3035354611
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  44. Ann-Kathrin Jaggy , Isabelle Kalkusch , Carine Burkhardt Bossi , Barbara Weiss , Fabio Sticca , Sonja Perren (2023). The impact of social pretend play on preschoolers’ social development: Results of an experimental study . Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 64, 13-25. Elsevier BV.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/j.ecresq.2023.01.012 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4320016043
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  45. TRISTRAM SMITH , Annette D. Groen , Jacqueline W. Wynn (2000). Randomized Trial of Intensive Early Intervention for Children With Pervasive Developmental Disorder . American Journal on Mental Retardation, 105(4), 269. American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (AAIDD).
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1352/0895-8017(2000)105 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2123413648
    OpenAlex
  46. Carol Westby (2022). Playing to Pretend or “Pretending” to Play: Play in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder . Seminars in Speech and Language, 43(04), 331-346. Georg Thieme Verlag KG.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1055/s-0042-1750348 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4288060519
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  47. Patricia Howlin , Anna Asgharian (1999). The diagnosis of autism and Asperger syndrome: findings from a survey of 770 families . Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 41(12), 834-839. Wiley.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1017/s0012162299001656 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2127643458
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  48. Michelle Dean , Robin Harwood , CONNIE KASARI (2017). The art of camouflage: Gender differences in the social behaviors of girls and boys with autism spectrum disorder . Autism, 21(6), 678-689. SAGE Publications.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/1362361316671845 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2559694411
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  49. Elisabeth M. Whyte , K. Suzanne Scherf (2018). Gaze Following Is Related to the Broader Autism Phenotype in a Sex-Specific Way: Building the Case for Distinct Male and Female Autism Phenotypes . Clinical Psychological Science, 6(2), 280-287. SAGE Publications.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/2167702617738380 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2768589889
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  50. Meng-Chuan Lai , Simon Baron-Cohen (2015). Identifying the lost generation of adults with autism spectrum conditions . The Lancet Psychiatry, 2(11), 1013-1027. Elsevier BV.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/s2215-0366(15)00277-1 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2128937542
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  51. Michelle Dean , Ya-Chih Chang , Wendy Shih , Felice Orlich , CONNIE KASARI (2023). Social engagement and loneliness in school-age autistic girls and boys . Women's Health, 19, 17455057231170973-17455057231170973. SAGE Publications.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/17455057231170973 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4367669555
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  52. Spencer C. Evans , Andrea D. Boan , Catherine Bradley , Laura A. Carpenter (2019). Sex/Gender Differences in Screening for Autism Spectrum Disorder: Implications for Evidence-Based Assessment . Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 48(6), 840-854. Informa UK Limited.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1080/15374416.2018.1437734 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2794962584
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  53. Helen Tager‐Flusberg , Sally J. Rogers , Judith Cooper , Rebecca Landa , Catherine Lord , Rhea Paul et al. (2009). Defining Spoken Language Benchmarks and Selecting Measures of Expressive Language Development for Young Children With Autism Spectrum Disorders . Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 52(3), 643-652. American Speech Language Hearing Association.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1044/1092-4388(2009/08-0136) OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2142548379
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  54. Valentina Fantasia , Francesca Moncalli , Arianna Bello (2024). Shared construction of social pretend play sequences at the kindergarten . Europe’s Journal of Psychology, 20(2), 116-128. Leibniz Institute for Psychology (ZPID).
    Type: Article DOI: 10.5964/ejop.12443 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4399139111
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  55. PETER MUNDY , Marian Sigman , CONNIE KASARI (1994). Joint attention, developmental level, and symptom presentation in autism . Development and Psychopathology, 6(3), 389-401. Cambridge University Press (CUP).
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1017/s0954579400006003 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2148497956
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  56. Farhan, H. (2025). Play behavior and cognitive flexibility in autistic and non-autistic children [Abstract Poster Presentation]. 2025 Student Research Symposium., Montclair State University. https://digitalcommons.montclair.edu/student-research-symposium/2025/poster01/18/
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  57. Zhangjing Luo , Ayelet Lahat , Michal Perlman , Nina Howe , Holly E. Recchia , William M. Bukowski et al. (2022). Changes in Social Pretend Play as Toddlers Form Relationships With Peers . Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 68(4), 401-436. Project MUSE.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1353/mpq.2022.a905091 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4386198705
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  58. Megan Fedewa , Laci Watkins , Angela Barber , Jennifer Baggett (2024). Supporting Social Play of Preschoolers With and Without Autism: A Collaborative Approach for Special Educators and Speech Language Pathologists . Early Childhood Education Journal, 52(6), 1023-1033. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10643-023-01488-6 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4367367759
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  59. Rachel E. White , Rachel B. Thibodeau-Nielsen , Francisco Palermo , Ariana M. Mikulski (2021). Engagement in social pretend play predicts preschoolers’ executive function gains across the school year . Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 56, 103-113. Elsevier BV.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/j.ecresq.2021.03.005 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3156899629
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  60. Kristelle Hudry , Kathy Leadbitter , Kathryn Temple , Vicky Slonims , Helen McConachie , Catherine Aldred et al. (2010). Preschoolers with autism show greater impairment in receptive compared with expressive language abilities . International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders, 45(6), 681-690. Wiley.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.3109/13682820903461493 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2154494149
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  61. Larry Fenson , Virginia A. Marchman , Donna J. Thal , Philip S. Dale , J. Steven Reznick , Elizabeth Bates (2012). MacArthur-Bates Communicative Development Inventories, Second Edition . PsycTESTS Dataset. American Psychological Association (APA).
    Type: Dataset DOI: 10.1037/t11538-000 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2939803422
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  62. Tae Kyun Kim , Jae Hong Park (2019). More about the basic assumptions of t-test: normality and sample size . Korean Journal of Anesthesiology, 72(4), 331-335. The Korean Society of Anesthesiologists.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.4097/kja.d.18.00292 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2934118928
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  63. Éric Fombonne (2018). Editorial: The rising prevalence of autism . Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 59(7), 717-720. Wiley.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1111/jcpp.12941 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2808881490
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  64. Sam V. Wass , Emily JH Jones , Teodora Gliga , Tim J. Smith , Tony Charman , Mark H. Johnson et al. (2015). Shorter spontaneous fixation durations in infants with later emerging autism . Scientific Reports, 5(1), 8284-8284. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1038/srep08284 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2170387637
    Crossref OpenAlex
  65. Kyle M. Frost , Anamiguel Pomales-Ramos , Brooke Ingersoll (2024). Brief Report: Response to Joint Attention and Object Imitation as Predictors of Expressive and Receptive Language Growth Rate in Young Children on the Autism Spectrum . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 54(3), 1213-1220. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10803-022-05567-2 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4281697511
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  66. Sam V. Wass , Emily JH Jones , Teodora Gliga , Tim J. Smith , Tony Charman , Mark H. Johnson et al. (2015). Shorter spontaneous fixation durations in infants with later emerging autism . Scientific Reports, 5(1). Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1038/srep08284 10.1136/bmj.h702
    OpenCitations
  67. Paula Hamilton , Katie Roberts (2025). “It's not as clear cut as autistic boys versus autistic girls.” Exploring autistic girls' experiences of mainstream secondary education . Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs, 25(4), 836-848. Wiley.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1111/1471-3802.70011 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4409695193
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  68. Craig Goodall (2018). ‘I felt closed in and like I couldn’t breathe’: A qualitative study exploring the mainstream educational experiences of autistic young people . Autism & Developmental Language Impairments, 3, 239694151880440. SAGE Publications.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/2396941518804407 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2894153791
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  69. Rachel R. Romeo , Julia A. Leonard , Sydney T. Robinson , Martin R. West , Allyson P. Mackey , Meredith L. Rowe et al. (2018). Beyond the 30-Million-Word Gap: Children’s Conversational Exposure Is Associated With Language-Related Brain Function . Psychological Science, 29(5), 700-710. SAGE Publications.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/0956797617742725 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2785525831
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  70. Lorcan Kenny , Caroline Hattersley , Bonnie Molins , Carole Buckley , Carol Povey , Elizabeth Pellicano (2016). Which terms should be used to describe autism? Perspectives from the UK autism community . Autism, 20(4), 442-462. SAGE Publications.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/1362361315588200 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2227393071
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  71. Jo Halsall , Chris Clarke , Laura Crane (2021). “Camouflaging” by adolescent autistic girls who attend both mainstream and specialist resource classes: Perspectives of girls, their mothers and their educators . Autism, 25(7), 2074-2086. SAGE Publications.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/13623613211012819 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3161750644
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  72. Agnieszka Rynkiewicz , Björn Schuller , Erik Marchi , Stefano Piana , Antonio Camurri , Amandine Lassalle et al. (2016). An investigation of the ‘female camouflage effect’ in autism using a computerized ADOS-2 and a test of sex/gender differences . Molecular Autism, 7(1), 10. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1186/s13229-016-0073-0 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2285089828
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  73. Margaret H. Mehling , Marc J. Tassé (2016). Severity of Autism Spectrum Disorders: Current Conceptualization, and Transition to DSM-5 . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 46(6), 2000-2016. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10803-016-2731-7 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2265955179
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  74. Hart, B., & Risley, T. R. (1995). Meaningful differences in the everyday experience of young American children. Brookes.
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  75. Henry Wood-Downie , Bonnie Wong , Hanna Kovshoff , Will Mandy , Laura Hull , Julie A. Hadwin (2021). Sex/Gender Differences in Camouflaging in Children and Adolescents with Autism . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 51(4), 1353-1364. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10803-020-04615-z OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3044619148
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  76. Laura Hull , K.V. Petrides , Carrie Allison , Paula Smith , Simon Baron-Cohen , Meng-Chuan Lai et al. (2017). Putting on my best normal”: social camouflaging in adults with autism spectrum conditions . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 47(8), 2519. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10803-017-3166-5 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2616560149
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  77. Laura Hull , K.V. Petrides , Will Mandy (2020). The female autism phenotype and camouflaging: a narrative review . Review Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 7(4), 306. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s40489-020-00197-9 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3004137504
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  78. Robert McCrossin (2022). Finding the True Number of Females with Autistic Spectrum Disorder by Estimating the Biases in Initial Recognition and Clinical Diagnosis . Children, 9(2), 272. MDPI AG.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.3390/children9020272 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4212916079
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  79. Vasiliki Totsika , Richard P. Hastings , Yoko Dutton , Alison Worsley , Glenn Melvin , Kylie M. Gray et al. (2020). Types and correlates of school non-attendance in students with autism spectrum disorders . Autism, 24(7), 1639-1649. SAGE Publications.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/1362361320916967 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3012853167
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  80. Masters Program in Public Health, Universitas Sebelas Maret , Anggi Resina Putri , Eti Poncorini Pamungkasari , Faculty of Medicine, Universitas Sebelas Maret , Hanung Prasetya , Health Polytechnics Ministry of Health, Surakarta (2020). Factors Affecting Early Detection and Stimulation by Mothers and their Impact on Receptive Language Skills of Children Age 4 to 6 Years . Journal of Maternal and Child Health, 5(3), 235-242. Masters Program in Public Health, Sebelas Maret University.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.26911/thejmch.2020.05.03.02 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3039198192
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  81. Lord, C., & Paul, R. (1997). Language and communication in autism. In D. J. Cohen & F. R. Volkmar (Eds.), Handbook of autism and pervasive developmental disorders (2nd ed., pp. 195–225). Wiley. https://idiscover.lib.cam.ac.uk/permalink/f/16u99e0/44CAM_ALMA21524599560003606
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  82. Kerri P. Nowell , Courtney J. Bernardin , Cynthia Brown , Stephen Kanne (2021). Characterization of Special Interests in Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Brief Review and Pilot Study Using the Special Interests Survey . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 51(8), 2711-2724. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10803-020-04743-6 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3092239336
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  83. Nicola McKern , Nicole Dargue , Naomi Sweller (2023). Comparing gesture frequency between autistic and neurotypical individuals: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 149(11-12), 724-745. American Psychological Association (APA).
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1037/bul0000408 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4387476491
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  84. Vicky Yiran Zhao , Jenny Gibson (2022). Solitary symbolic play, object substitution and peer role play skills at age 3 predict different aspects of age 7 structural language abilities in a matched sample of autistic and non-autistic children . Autism & Developmental Language Impairments, 7, 23969415211063822-23969415211063822. SAGE Publications.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/23969415211063822 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4206633414
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  85. Maite Montagut-Asunción , Sarah Crespo-Martín , Gemma Pastor-Cerezuela , Ana D’Ocon-Giménez (2022). Joint Attention and Its Relationship with Autism Risk Markers at 18 Months of Age . Children, 9(4), 556. MDPI AG.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.3390/children9040556 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4224016437
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  86. Andres Roman-Urrestarazu , Justin C Yang , Robin van Kessel , Varun Warrier , Guillaume Dumas , Hannah Jongsma et al. (2022). Autism incidence and spatial analysis in more than 7 million pupils in English schools: a retrospective, longitudinal, school registry study. Elsevier.
    Type: Other DOI: 10.17863/cam.92798
    Crossref
  87. M Sigman (1999). Sigman, M., Ruskin, E., Arbelle, S., Corona, R., Dissanayake, C., Espinosa, M., Kim, N., López, A., Zierhut, C., Mervis, C. B., & Robinson, B. F. (1999). Continuity and change in the social competence of children with Autism, down Syndrome, and developmental delays. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 64(1), JSTOR. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3181510 Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 64(1), JSTOR.
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  88. TRISTRAM SMITH , Annette D. Groen , Jacqueline W. Wynn (2000). Randomized Trial of Intensive Early Intervention for Children With Pervasive Developmental Disorder . American Journal on Mental Retardation, 105(4), 269. American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (AAIDD).
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1352/0895-8017(2000)105<0269:rtoiei>2.0.co;2
    Crossref OpenCitations
  89. Stata. (2023). Mvtest- multivariate tests of means. Stata. https://www.stata.com/manuals/mvmvtestmeans.pdf
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  90. The Australian Institute of Family Studies (2020). The Longitudinal Study of Australian Children: An Australian Government Initiative: Data user guide. https://growingupinaustralia.gov.au/data-and-documentation/data-user-guide
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  91. AM Wetherby (2001). Communication & Symbolic Behaviour Scale Developmental Profile–Infant/Toddler Checklist [CBS-DP] . Communication & Symbolic Behaviour Scale Developmental Profile–Infant/Toddler Checklist [CBS-DP].
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  92. World Health Organisation (2019). F84. 5 Asperger Syndrome. In International statistical classification of diseases and related health problems (11th ed.). https://icd.who.int/browse10/2019/en#/F84 . 0
    Type: Other
    Crossref