Overlapping And Differentiating Clinical Features of Autism and Borderline Personality Disorder in Women and People Assigned Female at Birth: A Cross-Sectional Study

This publication is included in the Autistic Autism Scholarship Project. The publication reports two autistic authors, without identifying them by name.

Metadata sources used for this reference

OpenAlex Crossref BibTeX
Learn more about the sources used

Barnicot, K., Thompson, E., Turner, S., Mandy, W., McCabe, R., Stark, E., & Parker, J. (2026). Overlapping And Differentiating Clinical Features of Autism and Borderline Personality Disorder in Women and People Assigned Female at Birth: A Cross-Sectional Study. Autism, 30(5), 1292-1304. https://doi.org/10.1177/13623613261431309

Publication date: 2 Apr 2026 Added to AutiHub: 16 Sep 2026 Type: Article Article language: English
Publisher source (DOI) Full text OpenAlex source

This publication is integrated into AutiHub through:

Authors

Publication authors
7
Autistic authors reported by the publication
2
  1. Kirsten Barnicot
  2. Elissa Thompson
  3. Sally Turner
  4. Will Mandy
  1. Rose McCabe
  2. Eloise Stark *
  3. Jennie Parker

Abstract

Previous research has suggested potential phenotypic similarities between autism and borderline personality disorder (BPD). We aimed to identify overlapping and differentiating characteristics of the two diagnostic groups in women and people assigned female at birth (PAFAB). Women and PAFAB with an autism diagnosis (n = 51) or a BPD diagnosis (n = 51), who had few or subclinical traits of the comparator diagnosis, completed a range of self-report questionnaires. Emotional reactivity, emotional dysregulation, identity disruption, difficulties being alone and rejection sensitivity were significantly more characteristic of BPD-diagnosed participants, with identity disruption representing the biggest difference from autistic participants (d = −1.36, 95% confidence interval [CI] = [−1.79, −0.92]). Autistic participants scored significantly more highly on measures of sensory processing, social cognition and behaviour, preference for sameness and repetitive motor behaviour, with sensory processing representing the biggest difference from BPD-diagnosed participants (d = 1.19, 95% CI = [0.76, 1.60]). Group differences in social cognition, social camouflaging, identity disruption, impulsivity and coping with being alone, together correctly classified 95.1% of participants (area under the curve [AUC] = 0.98). However, comparison with measure scores in previous research suggests more complex phenotypic similarities, whereby autistic individuals may show more BPD-aligned characteristics than the general population and vice versa. Lay Abstract Autism can look similar to borderline personality disorder (BPD), leading to misdiagnosis. For example, both diagnostic groups may experience difficulties in regulating their emotions. To improve diagnosis, we wanted to understand similarities and differences between autism and BPD in adult women and people assigned female at birth (PAFAB). We asked two groups of people to complete online questionnaires: (1) 51 women/PAFAB with an autism diagnosis, who do not meet diagnostic criteria for BPD and (2) 51 women/PAFAB diagnosed with and meeting diagnostic criteria for BPD, who are not autistic. The questionnaires asked participants how they experience their emotions, how they interact and relate with other people, how they experience their identity and self-concept, how they react to sensory input, for example, sounds and smells, and how they use repetitive movements, as well as their preferences for sticking to familiar ways of doing things. We found more differences than we expected between autistic people and people meeting diagnostic criteria for BPD. For example, autistic people described being more sensitive to sensory input, described ‘masking’ more during social interactions and described more challenges in understanding the social behaviour of non-autistic people, compared to people meeting diagnostic criteria for BPD. People meeting diagnostic criteria for BPD described more difficulties with emotion regulation and with their sense of self (‘knowing who I am’), were more likely to behave impulsively and found being on their own more difficult, compared to autistic people. Clinicians, and people with a BPD diagnosis who think they may be autistic, can use these findings to better understand the differences between the two diagnoses. Even though we found lots of differences, it is still likely that autistic people experience more similarities with BPD than non-autistic people do and vice versa.

Bibliography cited by this reference

Cited references are imported from external metadata sources when they are available. The list may be partial.

Cited bibliography overview

These indicators describe the bibliography cited by this publication. An author name is counted each time it appears in one cited reference, so the same person can be counted more than once. Names not yet linked to an author already present in AutiHub are treated as unknown, not as non-autistic. Last computed: 19 Sep 2026 01:01.

Cited references
69
With a DOI
62
Without a DOI, from raw bibliography text
7
3 / 69 (4.3%) cited references include at least one author identified as autistic.
References with data to complete
2 / 69 (2.9%)
References with detected author names
68 / 69 (98.6%)
Without detected author names
1
Without a structured title
2
Without a stable identifier
7
References with raw author names still to review
1
References with external metadata lookup issues
0
These indicators apply to cited references displayed on this page, after technical duplicates have been merged. A reference without a DOI can still support author statistics when a title and author names are available.
Author names detected in the cited bibliography
319
From DOI or external metadata
319
From validated raw bibliography text
0
Raw names already validated
0
Raw names still to review
1
108 / 319 (33.9%) names are linked to an author already present in AutiHub. 211 / 319 (66.1%) names are not yet linked.
Names linked to a person identified as autistic
9 / 319 (2.8%)
Calculated across all author names detected in the cited bibliography. Among names linked to an author already present in AutiHub: 9 / 108 (8.3%). Distinct people identified as autistic: 8 / 291 (2.7%).
  1. Andrea L. Roberts , Karestan C. Koenen , Kristen Lyall , Elise Robinson , Marc G. Weisskopf (2015). Association of autistic traits in adulthood with childhood abuse, interpersonal victimization, and posttraumatic stress . Child Abuse & Neglect, 45, 135-142. Elsevier BV.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/j.chiabu.2015.04.010 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W237833521
    Crossref OpenAlex
  2. Tamara M. Abu-Ramadan , Alison U. Tassone , Theresa M. Andrzejewski , Kaitlyn Breitenfeldt , Saily Gomez Batista , Christina G. McDonnell (2025). Diagnostic Experiences and Barriers to Diagnosis Among Autistic Adults in the United States: Associations with Diagnostic Timing and Gender . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10803-025-06986-7 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4413441805
    Crossref OpenAlex
  3. Jonathan A. Weiss , Kendra Thomson , Lisa Chan (2014). A Systematic Literature Review of Emotion Regulation Measurement in Individuals With Autism Spectrum Disorder . Autism Research, 7(6), 629-648. Wiley.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1002/aur.1426 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W1496949369
    Crossref OpenAlex
  4. Zainab Al-Attar , Rachel Worthington (2024). Trauma or autism? – understanding how the effects of trauma and disrupted attachment can be mistaken for autism . Advances in Autism, 10(3), 120-134. Emerald.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1108/aia-07-2023-0041 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4399680083
    Crossref OpenAlex
  5. Sarah L. Barrett , Mirko Uljarevic , Emma K Baker , Amanda L Richdale , Catherine R. G. Jones , Susan Leekam (2015). The Adult Repetitive Behaviours Questionnaire-2 (RBQ-2A): A Self-Report Measure of Restricted and Repetitive Behaviours . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 45(11), 3680-3692. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10803-015-2514-6 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W1921535324
    Crossref OpenAlex
  6. Carrie Allison , Bonnie Auyeung , Simon Baron-Cohen (2012). Toward Brief “Red Flags” for Autism Screening: The Short Autism Spectrum Quotient and the Short Quantitative Checklist in 1,000 Cases and 3,000 Controls . Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 51(2), 202-212.e7. Elsevier BV.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/j.jaac.2011.11.003 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2100429511
    Crossref OpenAlex
  7. Barry L. Stern , Yookyung Kim , Timothy J. Trull , Angela Scarpa , Paul Pilkonis (2000). Inventory of Interpersonal Problems Personality Disorder Scales: Operating Characteristics and Confirmatory Factor Analysis in Nonclinical Samples . Journal of Personality Assessment, 74(3), 459-471. Informa UK Limited.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1207/s15327752jpa7403_9 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W1965367634
    Crossref OpenAlex
  8. Aves W. (2022). #AutismNotPD: Borderline personality disorder Vs. Autism spectrum disorder. https://www.psychiatryisdrivingmemad.co.uk/post/autismnotpd-borderline-personality-disorder-vs-autism-spectrum-disorder
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  9. Andrea C. Samson , Jennifer M. Phillips , Karen J. Parker , Shweta Shah , James J. Gross , Antonio Y. Hardan (2014). Emotion Dysregulation and the Core Features of Autism Spectrum Disorder . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 44(7), 1766-1772. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10803-013-2022-5 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2011597768
    Crossref OpenAlex
  10. Lucy Barnard-Brak , Laci Watkins , David M. Richman (2021). Examining the Relation between Self-reported ASD Symptoms and Sensory Sensitivities from a Community-based Sample of Adults . Developmental Neurorehabilitation, 24(6), 388-396. Informa UK Limited.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1080/17518423.2021.1898056 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3144460376
    Crossref OpenAlex
  11. Kim L. Gratz , Lizabeth Roemer (2004). Multidimensional Assessment of Emotion Regulation and Dysregulation: Development, Factor Structure, and Initial Validation of the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale . Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 26(1), 41-54. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1023/b:joba.0000007455.08539.94 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2017039362
    Crossref OpenAlex
  12. Ryan W. Carpenter , Timothy J. Trull (2013). Components of Emotion Dysregulation in Borderline Personality Disorder: A Review . Current Psychiatry Reports, 15(1), 335-335. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s11920-012-0335-2 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2040571992
    Crossref OpenAlex
  13. Doha Bemmouna , Amine Lagzouli , Luisa Weiner (2023). The biosocial correlates and predictors of emotion dysregulation in autistic adults compared to borderline personality disorder and nonclinical controls . Molecular Autism, 14(1), 47-47. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1186/s13229-023-00580-3 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4389884580
    Crossref OpenAlex
  14. Sven Bölte (2012). Brief Report: The Social Responsiveness Scale for Adults (SRS-A): Initial Results in a German Cohort . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 42(9), 1998-1999. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10803-011-1424-5 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2069807232
    Crossref OpenAlex
  15. Erin A. Kaufman , Jenny M. Cundiff , Sheila E. Crowell (2015). The Development, Factor Structure, and Validation of the Self-concept and Identity Measure (SCIM): A Self-Report Assessment of Clinical Identity Disturbance . Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 37(1), 122-133. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10862-014-9441-2 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2073893118
    Crossref OpenAlex
  16. Lisandra Borges , Fernanda Otoni , Thatiana H. de Lima , Patrícia Waltz Schelini (2023). Social Responsibility Scale (SRS-2): Validity Evidence Based on Internal Structure . Psicologia: Teoria e Pesquisa, 39(spe). FapUNIFESP (SciELO).
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1590/0102.3772e39nspe11.en OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4379987084
    Crossref OpenAlex
  17. Yookyung Kim , Paul A. Pilkonis (1999). Selecting the Most Informative Items in the IIP Scales for Personality Disorders: An Application of Item Response Theory . Journal of Personality Disorders, 13(2), 157-174. Guilford Publications.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1521/pedi.1999.13.2.157 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2080732922
    Crossref OpenAlex
  18. Wouter Braamhorst , Jill Lobbestael , Wilco H.M. Emons , Arnoud Arntz , Cilia L.M. Witteman , Marrie H.J. Bekker (2015). Sex Bias in Classifying Borderline and Narcissistic Personality Disorder . Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease, 203(10), 804-808. Ovid Technologies (Wolters Kluwer Health).
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1097/nmd.0000000000000371 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2471327778
    Crossref OpenAlex
  19. Matthew K. Nock , Michelle M. Wedig , Elizabeth B. Holmberg , Jill M. Hooley (2008). The Emotion Reactivity Scale: Development, Evaluation, and Relation to Self-Injurious Thoughts and Behaviors . Behavior Therapy, 39(2), 107-116. Elsevier BV.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/j.beth.2007.05.005 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2093019890
    Crossref OpenAlex
  20. Stephen Byrne , Bridget A. Makol , Lauren M. Keeley , Andres De Los Reyes (2019). Psychometric Properties of the Emotion Reactivity Scale in Community Screening Assessments . Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 41(4), 730-740. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10862-019-09749-8 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2957195411
    Crossref OpenAlex
  21. Ashley Robertson , David R. Simmons (2013). The Relationship between Sensory Sensitivity and Autistic Traits in the General Population . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 43(4), 775-784. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10803-012-1608-7 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2096113836
    Crossref OpenAlex
  22. Fabienne Cazalis , Elisabeth Reyes , Séverine Leduc , David Gourion (2022). Evidence That Nine Autistic Women Out of Ten Have Been Victims of Sexual Violence . Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 16, 1. Frontiers Media SA.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2022.852203 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4225009262
    Crossref OpenAlex
  23. Antonia S. New , Marije aan het Rot , Luis H. Ripoll , M. Mercedes Perez-Rodriguez , Sophie Lazarus , Emma Zipursky et al. (2012). Empathy and Alexithymia in Borderline Personality Disorder: Clinical and Laboratory Measures . Journal of Personality Disorders, 26(5), 660-675. Guilford Publications.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1521/pedi.2012.26.5.660 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2105888206
    Crossref OpenAlex
  24. Carolina Hanna Chaim , Thales Marcon Almeida , Paula de Vries Albertin , Geilson Lima Santana , Erica Rosanna Siu , Laura Helena Andrade (2024). The implication of alexithymia in personality disorders: a systematic review . BMC Psychiatry, 24(1), 647-647. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1186/s12888-024-06083-6 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4403042696
    Crossref OpenAlex
  25. Jonna M Eriksson , Lisa MJ Andersen , Susanne Bejerot (2013). RAADS-14 Screen: validity of a screening tool for autism spectrum disorder in an adult psychiatric population . Molecular Autism, 4(1), 49. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1186/2040-2392-4-49 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2106068095
    Crossref OpenAlex
  26. Constantino J. N. (2012). The social responsiveness scale manual, second edition (SRS‐2) . The Social Responsiveness Scale Manual, Second Edition (SRS-2).
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  27. Mary C. Zanarini , A. Anna Vujanovic , Elizabeth A. Parachini , Jennifer L. Boulanger , Frances R. Frankenburg , John Hennen (2003). A Screening Measure for BPD: The McLean Screening Instrument for Borderline Personality Disorder (MSI-BPD) . Journal of Personality Disorders, 17(6), 568-573. Guilford Publications.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1521/pedi.17.6.568.25355 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2108984307
    Crossref OpenAlex
  28. Julie Cumin , Sandra Pelaez , Laurent Mottron (2022). Positive and differential diagnosis of autism in verbal women of typical intelligence: A Delphi study . Autism, 26(5), 1153-1164. SAGE Publications.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/13623613211042719 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3199578945
    Crossref OpenAlex
  29. Mary C. Zanarini , Frances R. Frankenburg , D. Bradford Reich , Kenneth R. Silk , James I. Hudson , Lauren B. McSweeney (2007). The Subsyndromal Phenomenology of Borderline Personality Disorder: A 10-Year Follow-Up Study . American Journal of Psychiatry, 164(6), 929-935. American Psychiatric Association Publishing.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1176/ajp.2007.164.6.929 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2123318349
    Crossref OpenAlex
  30. Robert B. Dudas , Chris Lovejoy , Sarah Cassidy , Carrie Allison , Paula Smith , Simon Baron-Cohen (2017). The overlap between autistic spectrum conditions and borderline personality disorder . PLOS ONE, 12(9), e0184447. Public Library of Science (PLoS).
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0184447 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2753816603
    Crossref OpenAlex
  31. Meng-Chuan Lai , Simon Baron-Cohen (2015). Identifying the lost generation of adults with autism spectrum conditions . The Lancet Psychiatry, 2(11), 1013-1027. Elsevier BV.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/s2215-0366(15)00277-1 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2128937542
    Crossref OpenAlex
  32. Duijkers J. C. (2014). Social cognition in the differential diagnosis of autism spectrum disorders and personality disorders . Clinical Neuropsychiatry, 11, 118.
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  33. DAVID S. MANDELL , Lindsay J Lawer , Kira Branch , Edward S. Brodkin , Kristin Healey , Robert Witalec et al. (2012). Prevalence and correlates of autism in a state psychiatric hospital . Autism, 16(6), 557-567. SAGE Publications.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/1362361311412058 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2152175389
    Crossref OpenAlex
  34. Lorie A. Ritschel , Erin B. Tone , Alexander M. Schoemann , Noriel E. Lim (2015). Psychometric properties of the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale across demographic groups. Psychological Assessment, 27(3), 944-954. American Psychological Association (APA).
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1037/pas0000099 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2314338033
    Crossref OpenAlex
  35. Gordon C. (2020). Differentiating between borderline personality disorder and autism spectrum disorder . Mental Health Practice, 23(3).
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  36. C Ellie Wilson , Clodagh M Murphy , Grainne McAlonan , Dene M Robertson , Debbie Spain , Hannah Hayward et al. (2016). Does sex influence the diagnostic evaluation of autism spectrum disorder in adults? Autism, 20(7), 808-819. SAGE Publications.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/1362361315611381 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2319586993
    Crossref OpenAlex
  38. Belén López‐Pérez , Tamara Ambrona , Michaela Gummerum (2017). Interpersonal emotion regulation in Asperger's syndrome and borderline personality disorder . British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 56(1), 103-113. Wiley.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1111/bjc.12124 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2562065466
    Crossref OpenAlex
  39. Shawna M. Gray , Carly A. McMorris , Tanya E. Mudry , Adam W. McCrimmon (2024). An exploration of diagnostic identity for autistic individuals: A systematic review of existing literature . Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 114, 102394. Elsevier BV.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/j.rasd.2024.102394 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4394778883
    Crossref OpenAlex
  40. Mikle South , AnnaLisa W. Carr , Kevin G. Stephenson , Max E. Maisel , Jonathan C. Cox (2017). Symptom overlap on the srs‐2 adult self‐report between adults with asd and adults with high anxiety . Autism Research, 10(7), 1215-1220. Wiley.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1002/aur.1764 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2592330356
    Crossref OpenAlex
  41. Lauren S. Hallion , Shari A. Steinman , David F. Tolin , Gretchen J. Diefenbach (2018). Psychometric Properties of the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS) and Its Short Forms in Adults With Emotional Disorders . Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 539-539. Frontiers Media SA.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00539 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2796166866
    Crossref OpenAlex
  42. Laura Hull , K.V. Petrides , Carrie Allison , Paula Smith , Simon Baron-Cohen , Meng-Chuan Lai et al. (2017). Putting on my best normal”: social camouflaging in adults with autism spectrum conditions . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 47(8), 2519. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10803-017-3166-5 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2616560149
    Crossref OpenAlex
  43. Laura Hull , Will Mandy , Meng-Chuan Lai , Simon Baron-Cohen , Carrie Allison , Paula Smith et al. (2019). Development and validation of the camouflaging autistic traits questionnaire (CAT-Q) . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 49(3), 819. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10803-018-3792-6 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2898221520
    Crossref OpenAlex
  44. Insua-Summerhays B. E. (2021). Investigating differences in social cognition in women with diagnoses of Autism Spectrum Conditions and Emotionally Unstable Personality Disorder . Investigating differences in social cognition in women with diagnoses of Autism Spectrum Conditions and Emotionally Unstable Personality Disorder.
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  45. Andrea Ritzl , Gábor Csukly , Katalin Balázs , Anikó Égerházi (2018). Facial emotion recognition deficits and alexithymia in borderline, narcissistic, and histrionic personality disorders . Psychiatry Research, 270, 154-159. Elsevier BV.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/j.psychres.2018.09.017 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2890868383
    Crossref OpenAlex
  46. Carsten R. Jørgensen , Rikke Bøye (2024). “I am ashamed that I exist. I feel like apologizing for existing”: The phenomenology of shame in patients with borderline personality disorder: A qualitative study. Personality Disorders: Theory, Research, and Treatment, 15(3), 181-192. American Psychological Association (APA).
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1037/per0000655 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4391643145
    Crossref OpenAlex
  47. Emma Kinnaird , Catherine Stewart , Kate Tchanturia (2019). Investigating alexithymia in autism: A systematic review and meta-analysis . European Psychiatry, 55, 80-89. Cambridge University Press (CUP).
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/j.eurpsy.2018.09.004 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2899269258
    Crossref OpenAlex
  48. Vasiliki Kentrou , Lucy A Livingston , Rachel Grove , Rosa A. Hoekstra , Sander Begeer (2024). Perceived misdiagnosis of psychiatric conditions in autistic adults . EClinicalMedicine, 71, 102586. Elsevier BV.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/j.eclinm.2024.102586 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4393965431
    Crossref OpenAlex
  49. Yvette Vardy , Nicholas J. S. Day , Brin F. S. Grenyer (2019). Development and validation of an experience of time alone scale for borderline personality disorder . PLOS ONE, 14(5), e0217350. Public Library of Science (PLoS).
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0217350 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2946026603
    Crossref OpenAlex
  50. Vasiliki Kentrou , Milou Oostervink , Anke Scheeren , Sander Begeer (2021). Stability of co-occurring psychiatric diagnoses in autistic men and women . Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 82(82), 101736. Elsevier BV.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/j.rasd.2021.101736 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3126928910
    Crossref OpenAlex
  51. Jess Kerr‐Gaffney , Amy Harrison , Kate Tchanturia (2020). The social responsiveness scale is an efficient screening tool for autism spectrum disorder traits in adults with anorexia nervosa . European Eating Disorders Review, 28(4), 433-444. Wiley.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1002/erv.2736 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3014145659
    Crossref OpenAlex
  52. C. Porter , J. Palmier‐Claus , A. Branitsky , W. Mansell , H. Warwick , F. Varese (2020). Childhood adversity and borderline personality disorder: a meta‐analysis . Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 141(1), 6-20. Wiley.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1111/acps.13118 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2981184913
    Crossref OpenAlex
  53. Ingrid Kiehl , Ruby Pease , Corinna Hackmann (2024). The adult experience of being diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder: A qualitative meta-synthesis . Autism, 28(5), 1060-1074. SAGE Publications.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/13623613231220419 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4391880189
    Crossref OpenAlex
  55. Samuel Tromans , Verity Chester , Eli Gemegah , Kristian Roberts , Zoe Morgan , Guiqing Lily Yao et al. (2021). Autism identification across ethnic groups: a narrative review . Advances in Autism, 7(3), 241-255. Emerald.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1108/aia-03-2020-0017 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3039573567
    Crossref OpenAlex
  56. Andie Storozuk , Marilyn Ashley , Véronic Delage , Erin A. Maloney (2020). Got Bots? Practical Recommendations to Protect Online Survey Data from Bot Attacks . The Quantitative Methods for Psychology, 16(5), 472-481. The Quantitative Methods for Psychology.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.20982/tqmp.16.5.p472 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3115100653
    Crossref OpenAlex
  57. Katie C. Lewis , Michael J. Roche , Fiona Brown , Jane G. Tillman (2023). Intolerance of aloneness as a prospective predictor of suicidal ideation during COVID-19 . Journal of Affective Disorders Reports, 11, 100469. Elsevier BV.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/j.jadr.2023.100469 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4313596647
    Crossref OpenAlex
  58. Lynch T. R. (2018). Radically open dialectical behavior therapy: Theory and practice for treating disorders of overcontrol . Radically open dialectical behavior therapy: Theory and practice for treating disorders of overcontrol.
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  59. Maj‐Britt Posserud , Berit Skretting Solberg , Anders Engeland , Jan Haavik , Kari Klungsøyr (2021). Male to female ratios in autism spectrum disorders by age, intellectual disability and attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder . Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 144(6), 635-646. Wiley.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1111/acps.13368 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3196877855
    Crossref OpenAlex
  60. Goldie A. McQuaid , Allison B. Ratto , Allison Jack , Alexis Khuu , Jessica V Smith , Sean C Duane et al. (2024). Gender, assigned sex at birth, and gender diversity: Windows into diagnostic timing disparities in autism . Autism, 28(11), 2806-2820. SAGE Publications.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/13623613241243117 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4394578709
    Crossref OpenAlex
  61. Franziska Meinck , Lakshmi Neelakantan , Bridget Steele , Janina Jochim , Lynn M. Davies , Mark Boyes et al. (2023). Measuring Violence Against Children: A COSMIN Systematic Review of the Psychometric Properties of Child and Adolescent Self-Report Measures . Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 24(3), 1832-1847. SAGE Publications.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/15248380221082152 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4224241621
    Crossref OpenAlex
  62. Goldie A. McQuaid , John F. Strang , Allison Jack (2024). Borderline Personality as a Factor in Late, Missed, and Mis-Diagnosis in Autistic Girls and Women: A Conceptual Analysis . Autism in Adulthood, 6(4), 401-427. SAGE Publications.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1089/aut.2023.0034 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4390604695
    Crossref OpenAlex
  63. Mark Zimmerman , Isabel Benjamin , Craig Seijas-Rodriguez (2022). Psychiatric Diagnoses Among Transgender and Gender Diverse Patients Compared to Cisgender Patients . The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 83(6). Physicians Postgraduate Press, Inc.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.4088/jcp.21m14062 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4296850004
    Crossref OpenAlex
  64. Damian Milton * , Gurbuz Emine , Beatriz López (2022). The ‘double empathy problem’: Ten years on . Autism, 26(8), 1901-1903. SAGE Publications.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/13623613221129123 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4306860573
    Crossref OpenAlex
  65. Luisa Weiner , Madalina Elena Costache , Doha Bemmouna , Juliette Rabot , Sébastien Weibel , Marine Dubreucq et al. (2023). Emotion dysregulation is heightened in autistic females: A comparison with autistic males and borderline personality disorder . Women's Health, 19, 17455057231174763-17455057231174763. SAGE Publications.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/17455057231174763 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4377563862
    Crossref OpenAlex
  66. Craig Rodriguez-Seijas , Theresa A. Morgan , Mark Zimmerman (2024). Transgender and Gender Diverse Patients Are Diagnosed with Borderline Personality Disorder More Frequently Than Cisgender Patients Regardless of Personality Pathology . Transgender Health, 9(6), 554-565. SAGE Publications.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1089/trgh.2023.0062 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4385578010
    Crossref OpenAlex
  67. Rachel Sarr , Debbie Spain , Alice M. G. Quinton , Francesca Happé , Chris R. Brewin , Jonathan Radcliffe et al. (2025). Differential diagnosis of autism, attachment disorders, complex post‐traumatic stress disorder and emotionally unstable personality disorder: A Delphi study . British Journal of Psychology, 116(1), 1-33. Wiley.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1111/bjop.12731 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4402690519
    Crossref OpenAlex
  68. Jay Watts (2024). The epistemic injustice of borderline personality disorder . BJPsych International, 21(4), 78-82. Royal College of Psychiatrists.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1192/bji.2024.16 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4396870582
    Crossref OpenAlex
  69. World Health Organisation (2011). World Health Organisation. (2011, May 4–5). Adverse Childhood Experiences International Questionnaire (Pilot study review and finalization meeting, WHO Headquarters, Geneva Meeting Report). Adverse Childhood Experiences International Questionnaire.
    Type: Other
    Crossref