Continuity and Change in Cognition and Autism Severity from Toddlerhood to School Age

This publication is included in the Autistic Autism Scholarship Project. one author of this publication is identified as autistic in the project.

About the autistic author marker

Metadata sources used for this reference

OpenAlex Crossref PubMed OpenCitations
Learn more about the sources used

Clark, M. L. E., Barbaro, J., & Dissanayake, C. (2016). Continuity and Change in Cognition and Autism Severity from Toddlerhood to School Age. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 47(2), 328-339. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-016-2954-7

Publication date: 15 Nov 2016 Added to AutiHub: 7 Sep 2026 Type: Article Article language: English
Publisher source (DOI) OpenAlex source

This publication is integrated into AutiHub through:

Authors

Publication authors
3
Publication authors identified as autistic
1 / 3 (33.3%)
  1. Megan L. E. Clark
  2. Josephine Barbaro *
  3. Cheryl Dissanayake

Abstract

UNLABELLED: This paper charted the cognitive and behavioural profiles from toddlerhood to middle childhood in 48 children diagnosed with ASD at 24-months. The Mullen Scales of Early Learning (MSEL) was administered at 24- and 48-months and the Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence (WASI) at school age. Autism severity was derived using The Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS) Results: Developmental Disability/Intellectual Disability (DD/ID; Developmental Quotient <70) reduced from 64% at 24-months to 8% at outcome. Seventy-three percent of children continued to meet ADOS cut-off at school age. CONCLUSION: Diagnoses at 24-months, appear to be reliable and stable. Further research is needed to investigate whether early identification, which provides more opportunity to access early intervention, may in turn facilitate cognitive development over time.

Bibliography cited by this reference

Cited references are imported from external metadata sources when they are available. The list may be partial.

Cited bibliography overview

These indicators describe the bibliography cited by this publication. An author name is counted each time it appears in one cited reference, so the same person can be counted more than once. Names not yet linked to an author already present in AutiHub are treated as unknown, not as non-autistic. Last computed: 12 Sep 2026 17:55.

Cited references
57
With a DOI
50
Without a DOI, from raw bibliography text
6
5 / 57 (8.8%) cited references include at least one author identified as autistic.
References with data to complete
6 / 57 (10.5%)
References with detected author names
54 / 57 (94.7%)
Without detected author names
3
Without a structured title
5
Without a stable identifier
6
References with raw author names still to review
2
References with external metadata lookup issues
2
These indicators apply to cited references displayed on this page, after technical duplicates have been merged. A reference without a DOI can still support author statistics when a title and author names are available.
Author names detected in the cited bibliography
314
From DOI or external metadata
314
From validated raw bibliography text
0
Raw names already validated
0
Raw names still to review
10
69 / 314 (22.0%) names are linked to an author already present in AutiHub. 245 / 314 (78.0%) names are not yet linked.
Names linked to a person identified as autistic
5 / 314 (1.6%)
Calculated across all author names detected in the cited bibliography. Among names linked to an author already present in AutiHub: 5 / 69 (7.2%). Distinct people identified as autistic: 1 / 238 (0.4%).
  1. Patricia Howlin , Philippa Moss (2012). Adults with Autism Spectrum Disorders . The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 57(5), 275-283. SAGE Publications.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/070674371205700502 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W14179519
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  2. Deborah K. Anderson , Jessie W. Liang , Catherine Lord (2014). Predicting young adult outcome among more and less cognitively able individuals with autism spectrum disorders . Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 55(5), 485-494. Wiley.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1111/jcpp.12178 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2092522680
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  3. Marian Sigman , Ellen Ruskin (2003). Chapter I: Background and Goals of this Study . Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 64(1), 1-10. Oxford University Press (OUP).
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1111/1540-5834.00002 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W1997277067
    OpenAlex OpenCitations
  4. Alan Lincoln , Eric Courchesne , Mark Allen , Ellen Hanson , Michaela Ene (1998). Neurobiology of Asperger Syndrome . In Asperger Syndrome or High-Functioning Autism? (pp. 145-163). Springer US.
    Type: Book chapter DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4615-5369-4_8 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W138892429
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  6. Isabelle Rapin (2003). Value and limitations of preschool cognitive tests, with an emphasis on longitudinal study of children on the autistic spectrum . Brain and Development, 25(8), 546-548. Elsevier BV.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/s0387-7604(03)00127-x OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2069094134
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  7. Ron Dumont , John O. Willis , Kathleen Veizel , Jamie Zibulsky (2014). Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence . Encyclopedia of Special Education. Wiley.
    Type: Other DOI: 10.1002/9781118660584.ese2519 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W1524959298
    OpenAlex
  9. Linda C. Eaves , Helena H. Ho (2004). The Very Early Identification of Autism: Outcome to Age 41/2–5 . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 34(4), 367-378. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1023/b:jadd.0000037414.33270.a8 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2013454146
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  10. Whitney Guthrie , Lauren B. Swineford , Charly Nottke , Amy M. Wetherby (2013). Early diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder: stability and change in clinical diagnosis and symptom presentation . Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54(5), 582-590. Wiley.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1111/jcpp.12008 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W1633699847
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  12. Corina W. McGovern , Marian Sigman (2005). Continuity and change from early childhood to adolescence in autism . Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46(4), 401-408. Wiley.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00361.x OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2059631255
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  13. Tony Charman , C.R.G. Jones , Andrew Pickles , Emily Simonoff , Gillian Baird , Francesca Happé (2011). Defining the cognitive phenotype of autism . Brain Research, 1380(1943), 10-21. Elsevier BV.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2010.10.075 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W1965141574
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  15. Helen E. Flanagan , Isabel M. Smith , Tracy Vaillancourt , Eric Duku , Péter Szatmári , Susan Bryson et al. (2015). Stability and Change in the Cognitive and Adaptive Behaviour Scores of Preschoolers with Autism Spectrum Disorder . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 45(9), 2691-2703. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10803-015-2433-6 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W1971922954
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  17. Catherine Lord , Michael Rutter , Ann Le Couteur (1994). Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised: A revised version of a diagnostic interview for caregivers of individuals with possible pervasive developmental disorders . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 24(5), 659-685. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/bf02172145 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W1980309199
    OpenAlex OpenCitations
  18. Amy M. Daniels , Rebecca E. Rosenberg , J. Kiely Law , Catherine Lord , Walter E. Kaufmann , Paul A. Law (2011). Stability of Initial Autism Spectrum Disorder Diagnoses in Community Settings . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 41(1), 110-121. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10803-010-1031-x OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W1983219028
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  19. Tony Charman , Emma Taylor , Auriol Drew , Helen Cockerill , Jo‐Anne Brown , Gillian Baird (2005). Outcome at 7 years of children diagnosed with autism at age 2: predictive validity of assessments conducted at 2 and 3 years of age and pattern of symptom change over time . Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46(5), 500-513. Wiley.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00377.x OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2036379035
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  20. Åsa Hedvall , Joakim Westerlund , Elisabeth Fernell , Anette Holm , Christopher Gillberg , Eva Billstedt (2014). Autism and developmental profiles in preschoolers: stability and change over time . Acta Paediatrica, 103(2), 174-181. Wiley.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1111/apa.12455 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2090580886
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  21. Katarzyna Chawarska , Ami Klin , Rhea Paul , Fred Volkmar (2007). Autism spectrum disorder in the second year: stability and change in syndrome expression . Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48(2), 128-138. Wiley.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2006.01685.x OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2171017318
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  22. Don J. Siegel , Nancy J. Minshew , Gerald Goldstein (1996). Wechsler IQ profiles in diagnosis of high-functioning autism . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 26(4), 389-406. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/bf02172825 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W1999261641
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  23. EM Dykens (2011). Autism spectrum disorders . Autism spectrum disorders, 261.
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  24. Robert M. Joseph , Helen Tager‐Flusberg , Catherine Lord (2002). Cognitive profiles and social‐communicative functioning in children with autism spectrum disorder . Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 43(6), 807-821. Wiley.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1111/1469-7610.00092 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2012337459
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  25. Christine Fountain , Alix S. Winter , Peter S. Bearman (2012). Six Developmental Trajectories Characterize Children With Autism . Pediatrics, 129(5), e1112-e1120. American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP).
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1542/peds.2011-1601 10.7916/d8-smgt-0t51
    OpenCitations
  26. MICHAEL C. STEVENS , DEBORAH A. FEIN , MICHELLE DUNN , DORIS ALLEN , LYNN H. WATERHOUSE , CARL FEINSTEIN et al. (2000). Subgroups of Children With Autism by Cluster Analysis: A Longitudinal Examination . Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 39(3), 346-352. Elsevier BV.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1097/00004583-200003000-00017 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2020406642
    OpenAlex OpenCitations
  27. Christine Fountain , Alix S. Winter , Peter S. Bearman (2012). Six Developmental Trajectories Characterize Children With Autism . Pediatrics, 129(5), e1112. American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP).
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1542/peds.2011-1601 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2145095299
    Crossref OpenAlex
  28. K Gotham (2009). Gotham, K., Pickles, A., & Lord, C. (2009). Standardizing ADOS scores for a measure of severity in autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 36, 693–705. doi: 10. 007/s10803-008-0674-3. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 36, 693.
    Type: Other DOI: 10.007/s10803-008-0674-3
    Crossref
  29. Vanessa Moore , Sally Goodson (2003). How Well Does Early Diagnosis of Autism Stand the Test of Time? Autism, 7(1), 47-63. SAGE Publications.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/1362361303007001005 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2164378543
    OpenAlex OpenCitations
  30. Saasha Sutera , Juhi Pandey , Emma L. Esser , Michael A. Rosenthal , Leandra B. Wilson , Marianne Barton et al. (2007). Predictors of Optimal Outcome in Toddlers Diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorders . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37(1), 98-107. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10803-006-0340-6 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2067279040
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  31. Sharon Bradley-Johnson (1997). Mullen Scales of Early Learning . Psychology in the Schools, 34(4), 379-382. Wiley.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1520-6807(199710)34:4 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2037716870
    OpenAlex
  32. TRISTRAM SMITH , Suzannah Iadarola (2015). Evidence Base Update for Autism Spectrum Disorder . Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 44(6), 897-922. Informa UK Limited.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1080/15374416.2015.1077448 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2142325401
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  33. V. Nordin , C. Gillberg (1998). The long‐term course of autistic disorders: update on follow‐up studies . Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 97(2), 99-108. Wiley.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0447.1998.tb09970.x OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2038105829
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  34. Elizabeth M. Starr , Svetlana Popovic , Brian P. McCall (2016). Supporting Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder at Primary School: Are the Promises of Early Intervention Maintained? Current Developmental Disorders Reports, 3(1), 46-56. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s40474-016-0069-7 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2275172450
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  35. Jamie M. Kleinman , Pamela Ventola , Juhi Pandey , Alyssa Verbalis , Marianne Barton , Sarah Hodgson et al. (2008). Diagnostic Stability in Very Young Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38(4), 606-615. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10803-007-0427-8 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2077830280
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  36. Catherine Lord , Susan Risi , Pamela S. DiLavore , Cory Shulman , Audrey Thurm , Andrew Pickles (2006). Autism From 2 to 9 Years of Age . Archives of General Psychiatry, 63(6), 694. American Medical Association (AMA).
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1001/archpsyc.63.6.694 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2090495936
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  37. Catherine Lord , Eric Schopler (1989). The role of age at assessment, developmental level, and test in the stability of intelligence scores in young autistic children . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 19(4), 483-499. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/bf02212853 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2093505997
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  38. Péter Szatmári , Stelios Georgiades , Eric Duku , Teresa A. Bennett , Susan Bryson , Éric Fombonne et al. (2015). Developmental Trajectories of Symptom Severity and Adaptive Functioning in an Inception Cohort of Preschool Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder . JAMA Psychiatry, 72(3), 276. American Medical Association (AMA).
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2014.2463 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2120646369
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  39. Lord, C., Rutter, M., & Le Couteur, A. (1994). Autism diagnostic interview-tevised: A revised version of a diagnostic interview for caregivers of individuals with possible pervasive developmental disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 24. doi: 10. 1007/BF/02172145.
    Type: Other DOI: 10.1007/bf/02172145
    Crossref
  40. Catherine Lord , Susan Risi , Linda Lambrecht , Edwin H. Cook , Bennett L. Leventhal , Pamela C. DiLavore et al. (2000). The Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule—Generic: A Standard Measure of Social and Communication Deficits Associated with the Spectrum of Autism . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 30(3), 205-223. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1023/a:1005592401947 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2144446993
    Crossref OpenAlex
  41. Catherine Lord (2012). Autism diagnostic observation schedule–2nd edition (ADOS-2) . Autism diagnostic observation schedule–2nd edition (ADOS-2).
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  42. V Moore (2003). Moore, V., & Goodson, S. (2003). How well does early diagnosis of autism stand the test of time? Autism: The International Journal of Research and Practice, 7(1), 47–63. Autism: The International Journal of Research and Practice, 7(1), 47.
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  43. Lauren M. Turner , Wendy L. Stone , Stacie L. Pozdol , Elaine E. Coonrod (2006). Follow-up of children with autism spectrum disorders from age 2 to age 9 . Autism, 10(3), 243-265. SAGE Publications.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/1362361306063296 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2104289742
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  44. EM Mullen (1995). Mullen scales of early learning . Mullen scales of early learning.
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  45. Lauren M. Turner , Wendy L. Stone (2007). Variability in outcome for children with an ASD diagnosis at age 2 . Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48(8), 793-802. Wiley.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01744.x OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2113244943
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  46. Sally Ozonoff , Gregory S. Young , Rebecca J. Landa , Jessica Brian , Susan Bryson , Tony Charman et al. (2015). Diagnostic stability in young children at risk for autism spectrum disorder: a baby siblings research consortium study . Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 56(9), 988-998. Wiley.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1111/jcpp.12421 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2139013981
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  47. Katherine Gotham , Andrew Pickles , Catherine Lord (2009). Standardizing ADOS Scores for a Measure of Severity in Autism Spectrum Disorders . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 39(5), 693-705. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10803-008-0674-3 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2129516277
    OpenAlex OpenCitations
  48. Sigman, M., Ruskin, E., Arbelle, S., Corona, R., Dissanayake, C., Espinosa, M., Zierhut, C. (1999). Continuity and change in the social competence of children with autism, Down syndrome, and developmental delays. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, i–139.
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  49. MC Stevens (2000). Stevens, M. C., Fein, D. A., Dunn, M., Allen, D., Waterhouse, L. H., Feinstein, C., & Rapin, E. (2000). Subgroups of children with autism by cluster analysis: a longitudinal examination. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 39(3), 346–352. doi: 10. 1097/00004583-2000030000-00017. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 39(3), 346.
    Type: Other DOI: 10.1097/00004583-2000030000-00017
    Crossref
  50. Elisabeth M. Dykens , Miriam Lense (2011). Intellectual Disabilities and Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Cautionary Note . In Autism Spectrum Disorders (pp. 263-269). Oxford University Press.
    Type: Book chapter DOI: 10.1093/med/9780195371826.003.0018 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2496832804
    OpenAlex
  51. Catherine Lord , Michael Rutter , Susan Goode , Jacquelyn Heemsbergen , Heather Jordan , Lynn Mawhood et al. (2016). Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule . PsycTESTS Dataset. American Psychological Association (APA).
    Type: Dataset DOI: 10.1037/t54175-000 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2914608742
    OpenAlex
  52. D Wechsler (1999). The Wechsler abbreviated scale of intelligence . The Wechsler abbreviated scale of intelligence.
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  53. (2012). Autism: The International Journal of Research and Practice . Autism, 16(1), 99-99. SAGE Publications.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/1362361311423344 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4243405658
    OpenAlex
  54. Kathleen Angkustsiri , Robin L. Hansen (2012). Autism Spectrum Disorders . In Textbook of Clinical Pediatrics (pp. 657-663). Springer Berlin Heidelberg.
    Type: Book chapter DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-02202-9_47 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4249138544
    OpenAlex
  55. David Wechsler (2012). Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence . PsycTESTS Dataset. American Psychological Association (APA).
    Type: Dataset DOI: 10.1037/t15170-000 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4251941333
    OpenAlex
  56. Tiffany Hutchins , Giacomo Vivanti , Natasa Mateljevic , Roger J. Jou , Frederick Shic , Lauren Cornew et al. (2013). Mullen Scales of Early Learning . In Encyclopedia of Autism Spectrum Disorders (pp. 1941-1946). Springer New York.
    Type: Book chapter DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4419-1698-3_596 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4253104584
    OpenAlex
  57. Sigman, Marian , Ruskin, Ellen (1999). Continuity and change in the social competence of children with autism, Down syndrome and developmental delays .
    Type: Article OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W7073857005
    OpenAlex