Exploring autistic adults’ psychosocial experiences affecting beginnings, continuity and change in camouflaging over time: A qualitative study in Singapore

Authors

Abstract

Camouflaging (or otherwise referred to as masking or passing) involves hiding one’s autistic-related characteristics and differences to get by in social situations in predominantly non-autistic societies. Very little is known to date about the course of camouflaging motivations and strategies over time or the psychosocial factors that may influence autistic people’s camouflaging choices and trajectories. In an exploratory qualitative study within an Asian sociocultural context, we interviewed 11 Singaporean autistic adults (9 males, 2 females, aged 22–45 years) about their camouflaging experiences to better understand (1) their camouflaging motivations and strategies over time, and (2) related psychosocial influences. Organised across four phases (pre-camouflaging, beginnings, continuity and change over time), 17 themes relating to camouflaging motivations and 8 themes relating to strategies were identified. The earliest camouflaging motivations were predominantly relational, linked to a negative self-identity that had been shaped by adverse social experiences. Camouflaging strategies became increasingly complex and integrated into one’s sense of self over time. Our findings highlight the role of psychosocial pressures precipitating camouflaging and emphasise the need for individual and societal changes, including moving towards enhanced acceptance and inclusion to reduce psychosocial pressures on autistic people to camouflage. Lay Abstract Over their lifetimes, many autistic people learn to camouflage (hide or mask) their autism-related differences to forge relationships, find work and live independently in largely non-autistic societies. Autistic adults have described camouflaging as a ‘lifetime of conditioning... to act normal’ involving ‘years of effort’, suggesting that camouflaging develops over an autistic person’s lifetime and may start early on, in childhood or adolescence. Yet, we know very little about why and how autistic people start to camouflage, or why and how their camouflaging behaviours continue or change over time. We interviewed 11 Singaporean autistic adults (9 male, 2 female, 22–45 years old) who shared their camouflaging experiences. We found that autistic adults’ earliest motivations to camouflage were largely related to the desire to fit in and connect with others. They also camouflaged to avoid difficult social experiences (such as being teased or bullied). Autistic adults shared that their camouflaging behaviours became more complex and that, for some, camouflaging became a part of their self-identity over time. Our findings suggest that society should not pathologise autistic differences, but instead accept and include autistic people, to reduce the pressure on autistic people to hide who they truly are.

1. Damian Milton *Autistic author. Learn more… (2012). On the ontological status of autism: the ‘double empathy problem’ . Disability & Society, 27(6), 883-887. Informa UK Limited.

   Type: Article DOI: 10.1080/09687599.2012.710008 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W1968949608

   AutiHub · Autistic Scholars Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
2. Adler P. A., Adler P. (2012). How many qualitative interviews is enough? Expert contribution (Mason J., Barker S. E., Edwards R., Eds., pp. 8–11). National Centre for Research Methods.

   Type: Other

   Crossref
3. Anna-Kaisa Newheiser , Manuela Barreto (2014). Hidden costs of hiding stigma: Ironic interpersonal consequences of concealing a stigmatized identity in social interactions . Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 52, 58-70. Elsevier BV.

   Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2014.01.002 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2166023526

   Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
4. Joyce Davidson , Victoria L. Henderson (2010). ‘Coming out’ on the spectrum: autism, identity and disclosure . Social & Cultural Geography, 11(2), 155-170. Informa UK Limited.

   Type: Article DOI: 10.1080/14649360903525240 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W1989287842

   Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
5. Wei Ai , William A. Cunningham , Meng-Chuan Lai (2022). Reconsidering autistic ‘camouflaging’ as transactional impression management . Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 26(8), 631-645. Elsevier BV.

   Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2022.05.002 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4281707972

   Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
6. George L. Engel (1977). The Need for a New Medical Model: A Challenge for Biomedicine . Science, 196(4286), 129-136. American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS).

   Type: Article DOI: 10.1126/science.847460 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2151186028

   Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
7. Sander Begeer , David S. Mandell , Bernadette Wijnker-Holmes , Stance Venderbosch , Dorien Rem , Fred Stekelenburg et al. (2013). Sex Differences in the Timing of Identification Among Children and Adults with Autism Spectrum Disorders . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 43(5), 1151-1156. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.

   Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10803-012-1656-z OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W1990581042

   Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
8. Sarah Bargiela , Robyn Steward *Autistic author. Learn more… , Will Mandy (2016). The Experiences of Late-diagnosed Women with Autism Spectrum Conditions: An Investigation of the Female Autism Phenotype . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 46(10), 3281-3294. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.

   Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10803-016-2872-8 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2494524772

   AutiHub · Autistic Scholars Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
9. Sarah Griffiths , Carrie Allison , Rebecca Kenny , Rosemary Holt , Paula Smith , Simon Baron-Cohen (2019). The Vulnerability Experiences Quotient (VEQ): A Study of Vulnerability, Mental Health and Life Satisfaction in Autistic Adults . Autism Research, 12(10), 1516-1528. Wiley.

   Type: Article DOI: 10.1002/aur.2162 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2949176131

   Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
10. M. Catherine Cappadocia , Jonathan A. Weiss , Debra Pepler (2012). Bullying Experiences Among Children and Youth with Autism Spectrum Disorders . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 42(2), 266-277. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10803-011-1241-x OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2034774915

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
11. Jonathan S Beck , Rebecca A Lundwall , Terisa Gabrielsen , Jonathan C Cox , Mikle South (2020). Looking good but feeling bad: “Camouflaging” behaviors and mental health in women with autistic traits . Autism, 24(4), 809-821. SAGE Publications.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/1362361320912147 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3028258828

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
12. Julianne M. Higgins *Autistic author. Learn more… , Samuel R. C. Arnold , Janelle Weise , Elizabeth Pellicano , Julian N Trollor (2021). Defining autistic burnout through experts by lived experience: Grounded Delphi method investigating #AutisticBurnout . Autism, 25(8), 2356-2369. SAGE Publications.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/13623613211019858 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3164838173

    AutiHub · Autistic Scholars Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
13. Kenneth K. Poon , Sijie Soon , Meng-Ee Wong , Sarinajit Kaur , Joanne Khaw , Zijia Ng et al. (2014). What is school like? Perspectives of Singaporean youth with high-functioning autism spectrum disorders . International Journal of Inclusive Education, 18(10), 1069-1081. Informa UK Limited.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1080/13603116.2012.693401 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2044294343

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
14. Michelle R. Kandalaft , Nyaz Didehbani , Daniel C. Krawczyk , Tandra T. Allen , Sandra B. Chapman (2013). Virtual Reality Social Cognition Training for Young Adults with High-Functioning Autism . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 43(1), 34-44. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10803-012-1544-6 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2046201394

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
15. Courtney J Bernardin , Timothy Lewis , Debora Bell , Stephen Kanne (2021). Associations between social camouflaging and internalizing symptoms in autistic and non-autistic adolescents . Autism, 25(6), 1580-1591. SAGE Publications.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/1362361321997284 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3133535198

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
16. Alexandra Leedham , Andrew R. Thompson , Richard Smith , Megan Freeth (2020). ‘I was exhausted trying to figure it out’: The experiences of females receiving an autism diagnosis in middle to late adulthood . Autism, 24(1), 135-146. SAGE Publications.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/1362361319853442 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2947577397

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
17. Jodi E. Nuernberger , Joel E. Ringdahl , Kristina K. Vargo , Anna C. Crumpecker , Karl F. Gunnarsson (2013). Using a behavioral skills training package to teach conversation skills to young adults with autism spectrum disorders . Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 7(2), 411-417. Elsevier BV.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/j.rasd.2012.09.004 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2049684294

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
18. Courtney J. Bernardin , Erica Mason , Timothy Lewis , Stephen Kanne (2021). “You Must Become a Chameleon to Survive”: Adolescent Experiences of Camouflaging . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 51(12), 4422-4435. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10803-021-04912-1 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3133279330

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
19. Iris Schneid , Aviad E. Raz (2020). The mask of autism: Social camouflaging and impression management as coping/normalization from the perspectives of autistic adults . Social Science & Medicine, 248, 112826. Elsevier BV.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2020.112826 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3003216866

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
20. Jaci C. Huws , Robert S. P. Jones (2008). Diagnosis, disclosure, and having autism: An interpretative phenomenological analysis of the perceptions of young people with autism . Journal of Intellectual & Developmental Disability, 33(2), 99-107. Informa UK Limited.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1080/13668250802010394 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2072336624

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
21. Derek Bolton , Grant Gillett (2019). The Biopsychosocial Model of Health and Disease . Springer International Publishing.

    Type: Book DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-11899-0 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4211247312

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
22. Eilidh Cage , Zoe Troxell-Whitman (2020). Understanding the Relationships Between Autistic Identity, Disclosure, and Camouflaging . Autism in Adulthood, 2(4), 334-338. SAGE Publications.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1089/aut.2020.0016 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3073966041

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
23. Rabi S. Bhagat , Geert Hofstede (2002). Culture's Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions, and Organizations across Nations . The Academy of Management Review, 27(3), 460. Academy of Management.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.2307/4134391 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2081228936

    OpenAlex
24. Monique Botha *Autistic author. Learn more… , Bridget Dibb , David M. Frost (2022). "Autism is me": an investigation of how autistic individuals make sense of autism and stigma . Disability & Society, 37(3), 427-453. Informa UK Limited.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1080/09687599.2020.1822782 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3092648145

    AutiHub · Autistic Scholars Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
25. Julia Cook , Laura Crane , Laura Hull , Laura Bourne , Will Mandy (2022). Self-reported camouflaging behaviours used by autistic adults during everyday social interactions . Autism, 26(2), 406-421. SAGE Publications.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/13623613211026754 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3175040857

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
26. Wei-Chin Hwang , Hector F. Myers , Jennifer Abe-Kim , Julia Y. Ting (2008). A conceptual paradigm for understanding culture's impact on mental health: The cultural influences on mental health (CIMH) model . Clinical Psychology Review, 28(2), 211-227. Elsevier BV.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/j.cpr.2007.05.001 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2088489431

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
27. Louise Bradley , Rebecca Shaw , Simon Baron-Cohen , Sarah Cassidy (2021). Autistic Adults' Experiences of Camouflaging and Its Perceived Impact on Mental Health . Autism in Adulthood, 3(4), 320-329. SAGE Publications.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1089/aut.2020.0071 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3170765972

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
28. Siobhan Tierney , Jan Burns , Elizabeth Kilbey (2016). Looking behind the mask: Social coping strategies of girls on the autistic spectrum . Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 23(Suppl. C), 73-83. Elsevier BV.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/j.rasd.2015.11.013 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2252057154

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
29. Harry C. Triandis (1989). The self and social behavior in differing cultural contexts. Psychological Review, 96(3), 506-520. American Psychological Association (APA).

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1037/0033-295x.96.3.506 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2088861238

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
30. Virginia Braun , Victoria Clarke (2021). Can I use TA? Should I use TA? Should I not use TA? Comparing reflexive thematic analysis and other pattern‐based qualitative analytic approaches . Counselling and Psychotherapy Research, 21(1), 37-47. Wiley.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1002/capr.12360 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3093223973

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
31. Iliana Magiati , Xiang Wei Tay , Patricia Howlin (2014). Cognitive, language, social and behavioural outcomes in adults with autism spectrum disorders: A systematic review of longitudinal follow-up studies in adulthood . Clinical Psychology Review, 34(1), 73-86. Elsevier BV.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/j.cpr.2013.11.002 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2089468865

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
32. Eilidh Cage , Jessica Di Monaco , Victoria Newell (2018). Experiences of Autism Acceptance and Mental Health in Autistic Adults . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 48(2), 473-484. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10803-017-3342-7 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2766434912

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
33. Anna Cook , Jane Ogden , Naomi Winstone (2018). Friendship motivations, challenges and the role of masking for girls with autism in contrasting school settings . European Journal of Special Needs Education, 33(3), 302-315. Informa UK Limited.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1080/08856257.2017.1312797 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2607052951

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
34. Hazel R. Markus , Shinobu Kitayama (1991). Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychological Review, 98(2), 224-253. American Psychological Association (APA).

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1037/0033-295x.98.2.224 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2097780989

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
35. Eilidh Cage , Zoe Troxell-Whitman (2019). Understanding the Reasons, Contexts and Costs of Camouflaging for Autistic Adults . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 49(5), 1899-1911. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10803-018-03878-x OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2909219349

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
36. Neil Humphrey , Sarah Lewis (2008). `Make me normal' . Autism, 12(1), 23-46. SAGE Publications.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/1362361307085267 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2119717901

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
37. Tiffany D. Johnson , Aparna Joshi (2014). Disclosure on the Spectrum: Understanding Disclosure Among Employees on the Autism Spectrum . Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 7(2), 278-281. Cambridge University Press (CUP).

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1111/iops.12149 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2150957450

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
38. Greg Guest , Arwen Bunce , Laura Johnson (2006). How Many Interviews Are Enough? Field Methods, 18(1), 59-82. SAGE Publications.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/1525822x05279903 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2129660502

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
39. Rosa A. Hoekstra , Anna A. E. Vinkhuyzen , Sally Wheelwright , Meike Bartels , Dorret I. Boomsma , Simon Baron-Cohen et al. (2011). The Construction and Validation of an Abridged Version of the Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ-Short) . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 41(5), 589-596. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10803-010-1073-0 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2130501331

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
40. Sarah Cassidy , Louise Bradley , Rebecca Shaw , Simon Baron-Cohen (2018). Risk markers for suicidality in autistic adults . Molecular Autism, 9(1), 42. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1186/s13229-018-0226-4 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2887488849

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
41. Ella Perry , Will Mandy , Laura Hull , Eilidh Cage (2022). Understanding Camouflaging as a Response to Autism-Related Stigma: A Social Identity Theory Approach . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 52(2), 800-810. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10803-021-04987-w OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3150043110

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
42. Geert Hofstede (2011). Dimensionalizing Cultures: The Hofstede Model in Context . Online Readings in Psychology and Culture, 2(1). Grand Valley State University Libraries - DIGITAL COMMONS JOURNALS.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.9707/2307-0919.1014 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2133535394

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
43. Louise Chapman , Kieran Rose *Autistic author. Learn more… , Laura Hull , Will Mandy (2022). “I want to fit in… but I don’t want to change myself fundamentally”: A qualitative exploration of the relationship between masking and mental health for autistic teenagers . Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 99, 102069. Elsevier BV.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/j.rasd.2022.102069 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4309470595

    AutiHub · Autistic Scholars Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
44. Laura Hull , Lily Levy , Meng-Chuan Lai , K. V. Petrides , Simon Baron-Cohen , Carrie Allison et al. (2021). Is social camouflaging associated with anxiety and depression in autistic adults? Molecular Autism, 12(1), 13-13. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1186/s13229-021-00421-1 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3132619758

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
45. Jessica H. Schroeder , M. Catherine Cappadocia , James M. Bebko , Debra J. Pepler , Jonathan A. Weiss (2014). Shedding Light on a Pervasive Problem: A Review of Research on Bullying Experiences Among Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 44(7), 1520-1534. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10803-013-2011-8 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2134941715

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
46. Meng-Chuan Lai , Michael Lombardo , Greg Pasco , Amber Ruigrok , Sally J. Wheelwright , Susan A. Sadek et al. (2011). A Behavioral Comparison of Male and Female Adults with High Functioning Autism Spectrum Conditions . PLoS ONE, 6(6), e20835. Public Library of Science (PLoS).

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0020835 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2148661798

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
47. Julia Cook , Laura Crane , Laura Bourne , Laura Hull , Will Mandy (2021). Camouflaging in an everyday social context: An interpersonal recall study . Autism, 25(5), 1444-1456. SAGE Publications.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/1362361321992641 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3129900907

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
48. Lucy A Livingston , Francesca Happé (2017). Conceptualising compensation in neurodevelopmental disorders: Reflections from autism spectrum disorder . Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 80, 729-742. Elsevier BV.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.06.005 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2714476989

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
49. Julia Cook , Laura Hull , Laura Crane , Will Mandy (2021). Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review . Clinical Psychology Review, 89, 102080. Elsevier BV.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/j.cpr.2021.102080 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3198172085

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
50. Blythe A. Corbett , Jessica M. Schwartzman , Erin J. Libsack , Rachael A. Muscatello , Matthew D Lerner , Grace L. Simmons et al. (2021). Camouflaging in Autism: Examining Sex‐Based and Compensatory Models in Social Cognition and Communication . Autism Research, 14(1), 127-142. Wiley.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1002/aur.2440 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3107498375

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
51. Laura Crane , Caroline Hearst *Autistic author. Learn more… , Maria Ashworth , Jade Davies , Elisabeth L. Hill (2021). Supporting Newly Identified or Diagnosed Autistic Adults: An Initial Evaluation of an Autistic-Led Programme . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 51(3), 892-905. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10803-020-04486-4 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3014483935

    AutiHub · Autistic Scholars Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
52. Matthew J Hollocks , Jian Wei Lerh , Iliana Magiati , Richard Meiser-Stedman , Traolach Brugha (2019). Anxiety and depression in adults with autism spectrum disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis . Psychological Medicine, 49(4), 559-572. Cambridge University Press (CUP).

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1017/s0033291718002283 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2889987209

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
53. Vivian L. Vignoles , Ellinor Owe , Maja Becker , Peter B. Smith , Matthew J. Easterbrook , Rupert Brown et al. (2016). Beyond the ‘east–west’ dichotomy: Global variation in cultural models of selfhood. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 145(8), 966-1000. American Psychological Association (APA).

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1037/xge0000175 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2474075425

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
54. Serena Cribb , Lorcan Kenny , Elizabeth Pellicano (2019). ‘I definitely feel more in control of my life’: The perspectives of young autistic people and their parents on emerging adulthood . Autism, 23(7), 1765-1781. SAGE Publications.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/1362361319830029 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2918237446

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
55. Catherine J. Crompton , Sonny Hallett *Autistic author. Learn more… , Christine McAuliffe , Andrew C. Stanfield , Sue Fletcher‐Watson (2022). “A Group of Fellow Travellers Who Understand”: Interviews With Autistic People About Post-diagnostic Peer Support in Adulthood . Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 831628-831628. Frontiers Media SA.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.831628 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4221114197

    AutiHub · Autistic Scholars Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
56. Michelle Dean , Robin Harwood , Connie Kasari (2017). The art of camouflage: Gender differences in the social behaviors of girls and boys with autism spectrum disorder . Autism, 21(6), 678-689. SAGE Publications.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/1362361316671845 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2559694411

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
57. Catherine J. Crompton , Sonny Hallett *Autistic author. Learn more… , Danielle Ropar , Emma G. Flynn , Sue Fletcher‐Watson (2020). ‘I never realised everybody felt as happy as I do when I am around autistic people’: A thematic analysis of autistic adults’ relationships with autistic and neurotypical friends and family . Autism, 24(6), 1438-1448. SAGE Publications.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/1362361320908976 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3009630179

    AutiHub · Autistic Scholars Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
58. Patricia Howlin , Iliana Magiati (2017). Autism spectrum disorder . Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 30(2), 69-76. Ovid Technologies (Wolters Kluwer Health).

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1097/yco.0000000000000308 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2569059432

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
59. Noah J. Sasson , Daniel J. Faso , Jack Nugent , Sarah Lovell , Daniel P. Kennedy , Ruth B. Grossman (2017). Neurotypical Peers are Less Willing to Interact with Those with Autism based on Thin Slice Judgments . Scientific Reports, 7(1), 40700. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1038/srep40700 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2585989266

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
60. กุลศิริ อรุณภาคย์ (2012). Qualitative Research Practice: A Guide for Social Science Students and Researchers . Jimbun gakuhō, 3(1), 252-258.

    Type: Article OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2613932856

    OpenAlex
61. Laura Hull , K. V. Petrides , Carrie Allison , Paula Smith , Simon Baron-Cohen , Meng-Chuan Lai et al. (2017). “Putting on My Best Normal”: Social Camouflaging in Adults with Autism Spectrum Conditions . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 47(8), 2519-2534. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10803-017-3166-5 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2616560149

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
62. Danielle Miller , Jon Rees , Amy Pearson *Autistic author. Learn more… (2021). “Masking Is Life”: Experiences of Masking in Autistic and Nonautistic Adults . Autism in Adulthood, 3(4), 330-338. SAGE Publications.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1089/aut.2020.0083 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3162613655

    AutiHub · Autistic Scholars Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
63. Joanne Halsall , Chris Clarke , Laura Crane (2021). “Camouflaging” by adolescent autistic girls who attend both mainstream and specialist resource classes: Perspectives of girls, their mothers and their educators . Autism, 25(7), 2074-2086. SAGE Publications.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/13623613211012819 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3161750644

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
64. Barbara J. Lehman , Diana M. David , Jennifer A. Gruber (2017). Rethinking the biopsychosocial model of health: Understanding health as a dynamic system . Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 11(8). Wiley.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1111/spc3.12328 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2742392924

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
65. Emeline Han , Melisa Mei Jin Tan , Laura Crane , Helena Legido-Quigley (2021). A qualitative study of autism services and supports in Singapore: Perspectives of service providers, autistic adults and caregivers . Autism, 25(8), 2279-2290. SAGE Publications.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/13623613211016112 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3165307410

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
66. Alicja Jedrzejewska , Jessica Dewey (2022). Camouflaging in Autistic and Non-autistic Adolescents in the Modern Context of Social Media . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 52(2), 630-646. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10803-021-04953-6 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3136678529

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
67. Ann X. Huang , Tammy L. Hughes , Lawrence R. Sutton , Marissa Lawrence , Xiaohan Chen , Zhe Ji et al. (2017). Understanding the Self in Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD): A Review of Literature . Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 1422-1422. Frontiers Media SA.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01422 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2750388080

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
68. Noah J. Sasson , Kerrianne E Morrison (2019). First impressions of adults with autism improve with diagnostic disclosure and increased autism knowledge of peers . Autism, 23(1), 50-59. SAGE Publications.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/1362361317729526 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2766361726

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
69. Hofstede G. (2001). Culture’s consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions and organizations across nations . Culture’s consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions and organizations across nations.

    Type: Other

    Crossref
70. Dora M Raymaker *Autistic author. Learn more… , Alan R. Teo , Nicole A. Steckler , Brandy Lentz , Mirah Scharer , Austin Delos Santos et al. (2020). “Having All of Your Internal Resources Exhausted Beyond Measure and Being Left with No Clean-Up Crew”: Defining Autistic Burnout . Autism in Adulthood, 2(2), 132-143. SAGE Publications.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1089/aut.2019.0079 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3015685928

    AutiHub · Autistic Scholars AutiHub · Documentation center Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
71. Helen McConachie , Colin Wilson , David Mason , Deborah Garland , Jeremy R. Parr , Alexia Rattazzi et al. (2020). What Is Important in Measuring Quality of Life? Reflections by Autistic Adults in Four Countries . Autism in Adulthood, 2(1), 4-12. SAGE Publications.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1089/aut.2019.0008 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2974102439

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
72. Laura Hull , Will Mandy , Meng-Chuan Lai , Simon Baron-Cohen , Carrie Allison , Paula Smith et al. (2019). Development and Validation of the Camouflaging Autistic Traits Questionnaire (CAT-Q) . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 49(3), 819-833. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10803-018-3792-6 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2898221520

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
73. Henry Wood-Downie , Bonnie Wong , Hanna Kovshoff , Will Mandy , Laura Hull , Julie A. Hadwin (2021). Sex/Gender Differences in Camouflaging in Children and Adolescents with Autism . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 51(4), 1353-1364. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10803-020-04615-z OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3044619148

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
74. Lucy A Livingston , Punit Shah , Francesca Happé (2019). Compensatory strategies below the behavioural surface in autism: a qualitative study . The Lancet Psychiatry, 6(9), 766-777. Elsevier BV.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/s2215-0366(19)30224-x OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2963462665

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
75. Laura Hull , K. V. Petrides , Will Mandy (2021). Cognitive Predictors of Self‐Reported Camouflaging in Autistic Adolescents . Autism Research, 14(3), 523-532. Wiley.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1002/aur.2407 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3091896474

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
76. Arielle Silverman (2019). Contending with Ableism from Internalized Ableism to Collective Action . In Ableism (pp. 220-265). Wiley.

    Type: Book chapter DOI: 10.1002/9781119142140.ch6 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2971107097

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
77. Lucy A Livingston , Punit Shah , Victoria Milner , Francesca Happé (2020). Quantifying compensatory strategies in adults with and without diagnosed autism . Molecular Autism, 11(1), 15-15. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1186/s13229-019-0308-y OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2995930586

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
78. Amy Pearson *Autistic author. Learn more… , Kieran Rose *Autistic author. Learn more… (2021). A Conceptual Analysis of Autistic Masking: Understanding the Narrative of Stigma and the Illusion of Choice . Autism in Adulthood, 3(1), 52-60. SAGE Publications.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1089/aut.2020.0043 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3121580719

    AutiHub · Autistic Scholars Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
79. (2020). DETERMINING THE SAMPLE SIZE IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH . International Multidisciplinary Scientific Conferences on the Dialogue between Sciences & Arts, Religion & Education, 4(4). IFIASA (Ideas Forum International Academic and Scientific Association).

    Type: Article DOI: 10.26520/mcdsare.2020.4.181-187 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3134312897

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
80. Jane Ritchie , Liz Spencer (2010). Qualitative data analysis for applied policy research . In Analyzing qualitative data (pp. 173-194). Taylor & Francis.

    Type: Book chapter DOI: 10.4324/9780203413081_chapter_9 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4248854933

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
81. Wikke J. van der Putten , Joost A. Agelink van Rentergem , Tulsi A. Radhoe , Carolien Torenvliet , Annabeth P. Groenman , Audrey J.J. Mol et al. (2023). How to measure camouflaging? A conceptual replication of the validation of the Camouflaging Autistic Traits Questionnaire in Dutch adults . Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 100, 102072. Elsevier BV.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/j.rasd.2022.102072 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4309591662

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
82. Ritchie J. (2013). Qualitative research practice: A guide for social science students and researchers . Qualitative research practice: A guide for social science students and researchers.

    Type: Other

    Crossref