Rethinking body representations in autism across cultures

Authors

Abstract

questionnaires and evaluations have primarily been developed in a limited set of developed nations, including France (10,11), Saudi Arabia (15,19), Japan (13), the USA (14), the UK (15), Sweden (16) and Austria (17). This concentration in developed countries restricts the applicability of these tools. Despite cultural commonalities, biased assessments overlook global BR diversity, neglecting many cultures and hindering autism diagnosis and support worldwide. Consequently, future research must prioritize developing universally adaptable assessments that accommodate cultural and linguistic diversity, enhancing both accuracy and accessibility. Because cultural norms significantly shape how BR manifest and how autism is perceived, e.g., varying norms around eye contact and social engagement (18)(19)(20), it is essential to assess BR within these contexts. This necessity extends well beyond autism, as cultural beliefs and practices shape health-seeking behaviors and the interpretation of symptoms across different populations. Culturally grounded adaptations in autism interventions improve effectiveness, as emphasized by Keehn (21), and cultural beliefs influence care practices and treatment outcomes (21,22). A one-size-fits-all approach to autism assessment may therefore overlook critical cultural nuances, potentially leading to misdiagnosis or ineffective interventions.Therefore, this opinion highlights the importance of integrating cultural factors in the assessment of BRs in autism.Currently, the vast majority of the studies are being conducted in high-income countries (HIC), which leads to biased understandings of autism (23), limiting the generalizability of findings to non-Western populations. While 80% of the population lives in LMICs (23), research on autism in lowand middle income countries (LMICs) is still very limited, and many individuals remain undiagnosed due to the lack of culturally appropriate diagnostic tools (24)(25)(26)(27). For example in China, diagnostic services are still developing, resulting in lower prevalence rates 39.23 per 10,000 compared to higher-income countries like the USA and Northern Europe (1% to 2.21%); this gap can be attributed to diagnostic tools that overlook cultural differences, language barriers, and varying levels of autism awareness (23)(24)(25)(26)(27)(28)(29). This disparity is evident in epidemiological studies, where 26 of 37 surveys were from high-income countries and only 11 from middle-income countries (average prevalence 0.47%), with no studies from low-income countries (19). In Nigeria and South Africa, researchers highlight persistent barriers such as low diagnostic awareness, cultural stigma, and a lack of regionally adapted screening tools (24,25). Similarly, in India, Dey et al. conducted an online survey followed by an indepth conversation with parents of autistic children and autistic adults emphasizing the need for culturally grounded autism priorities and tools (26). These studies demonstrate that underdiagnosis in LMICs is not solely due to economic constraints, but also to fundamental mismatches between Western-based diagnostic models and local sociocultural frameworks.To better evaluate the research specifically performed around BR in ASD we performed a bibliometric analysis. Bibliometric analysis is a quantitative method for mapping scientific literature, allowing researchers to identify trends, collaboration networks, knowledge gaps and potential future research direction by analyzing publication metadata (30). Data for the present study was obtained from the WoS (accessed on 15 April 2025), using MeSH and title/abstract keywords related to autism spectrum disorder (e.g., "ASD," "autism," "Asperger's syndrome") and body representations (e.g., "body awareness," "interoception," "body schema," "proprioception," "sensorimotor integration," "embodiment," "motor imagery"). A total of 4,024 documents including research articles, review articles and book chapters formed the final dataset, with data processed using VOSviewer to visualize and map collaboration networks (31).Before 2000 we observed that this concept was scarcely studied, but it has since experienced exponential growth. (Figure 1B). As for studies about the prevalence of ASD we observed that most, if not all the studies, are being performed in HIC (the 20 most significant contributor are presented in Figure 1C). Another important finding, potentially limiting the external validity of these studies, from a cultural point of view, is that most of the studies are being performed in one single country and that, as depicted in Figure 1A, there are almost no collaborations with LMICs.The main challenges in assessing BRs in various cultures 3.1 Cultural background: between similarities and differences in regional patternsOne crucial aspect to consider is that cultural similarities across certain regions or countries can result in similar patterns in the manifestation of BR and other autism-related characteristics. Countries with shared cultural, historical, or linguistic backgrounds are more likely to exhibit comparable societal norms and attitudes towards body perception. This common cultural foundation can lead to similarities in research outcomes within these regions. For example, studies conducted in countries which share cultural and linguistic resemblances, often show analogous results in terms of BRs assessments and autism prevalence (23). Countries in the Middle East, like Saudi Arabia and Egypt, may exhibit parallel outcomes due to shared cultural and religious norms (32)(33)(34)(35)(36). Similarly, countries influenced by Latin European and Western biomedical traditions share cultural and scientific framework, public health and educational systems, ultimately leading to alike societal attitudes toward body perceptions.

1. Laurence R. Harris , Michael J. Carnevale , Sarah D’Amour , Lindsey E. Fraser , Vanessa Harrar , Adria E. N. Hoover et al. (2015). How our body influences our perception of the world . Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 819-819. Frontiers Media SA.

   Type: Article DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00819 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W1501608439

   Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
2. Matej Hoffmann , Pablo Lanillos , Lorenzo Jamone , Alex Pitti , Eszter Somogyi (2020). Editorial: Body Representations, Peripersonal Space, and the Self: Humans, Animals, Robots . Frontiers in Neurorobotics, 14, 35-35. Frontiers Media SA.

   Type: Article DOI: 10.3389/fnbot.2020.00035 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3036396213

   Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
3. Rachel F Rodgers , Katherine Laveway , Priscila Campos , Pedro Henrique Berbert de Carvalho (2023). Body image as a global mental health concern . Cambridge Prisms: Global Mental Health, 10, e9. Cambridge University Press (CUP).

   Type: Article DOI: 10.1017/gmh.2023.2 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4322580498

   Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
4. Shinobu Kitayama , Sarah Huff (2015). Cultural Neuroscience: Connecting Culture, Brain, and Genes . Emerging Trends in the Social and Behavioral Sciences, 1-16. Wiley.

   Type: Other DOI: 10.1002/9781118900772.etrds0062 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W1577312982

   Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
5. Davide Sattin , Chiara Parma , Christian Lunetta , Aida Zulueta , Jacopo Lanzone , Luca Giani et al. (2023). An Overview of the Body Schema and Body Image: Theoretical Models, Methodological Settings and Pitfalls for Rehabilitation of Persons with Neurological Disorders . Brain Sciences, 13(10), 1410. MDPI AG.

   Type: Article DOI: 10.3390/brainsci13101410 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4387342070

   Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
6. Ghaleb H. Alnahdi (2024). Variations in Perceptions of Well-Being within Families of Youths with Intellectual Disabilities in Saudi Arabia . Children, 11(6), 644. MDPI AG.

   Type: Article DOI: 10.3390/children11060644 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4399041363

   Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
7. Jun Izawa , Sarah E. Pekny , Mollie K. Marko , Courtney C. Haswell , Reza Shadmehr , Stewart H. Mostofsky (2012). Motor Learning Relies on Integrated Sensory Inputs in ADHD, but Over‐Selectively on Proprioception in Autism Spectrum Conditions . Autism Research, 5(2), 124-136. Wiley.

   Type: Article DOI: 10.1002/aur.1222 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W1582288327

   Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
8. Matthew R. Longo , Patrick Haggard (2010). An implicit body representation underlying human position sense . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107(26), 11727-11732. National Academy of Sciences.

   Type: Article DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1003483107 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2035992545

   Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
9. Nees Jan van Eck , Ludo Waltman (2010). Software survey: VOSviewer, a computer program for bibliometric mapping . Scientometrics, 84(2), 523-538. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.

   Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s11192-009-0146-3 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2150220236

   Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
10. Carissa J. Cascio , Estephan J. Moana‐Filho , Steve Guest , Mary Beth Nebel , Jonathan Weisner , Grace T. Baranek et al. (2012). Perceptual and Neural Response to Affective Tactile Texture Stimulation in Adults with Autism Spectrum Disorders . Autism Research, 5(4), 231-244. Wiley.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1002/aur.1224 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W1913927293

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
11. Giuseppe Riva (2018). The neuroscience of body memory: From the self through the space to the others . Cortex, 104, 241-260. Elsevier BV.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/j.cortex.2017.07.013 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2737371627

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
12. Emma Gowen , Louis Earley , Adeeba Waheed , Ellen Poliakoff (2023). From “one big clumsy mess” to “a fundamental part of my character.” Autistic adults’ experiences of motor coordination . PLOS ONE, 18(6), e0286753. Public Library of Science (PLoS).

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0286753 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4379184529

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
13. Lise Mogensen , Jan Mason (2015). The meaning of a label for teenagers negotiating identity: experiences with autism spectrum disorder . Sociology of Health & Illness, 37(2), 255-269. Wiley.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1111/1467-9566.12208 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2019639281

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
14. Anne de Leeuw , Francesca Happé , Rosa A. Hoekstra (2020). A Conceptual Framework for Understanding the Cultural and Contextual Factors on Autism Across the Globe . Autism Research, 13(7), 1029-1050. Wiley.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1002/aur.2276 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3006691882

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
15. Shihui Han , Georg Northoff (2008). Culture-sensitive neural substrates of human cognition: a transcultural neuroimaging approach . Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 9(8), 646-654. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1038/nrn2456 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2026203340

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
16. Dijkerman (2018). The body and cognition: The relation between body representations and higher level cognitive and social processes . Cortex, 104.

    Type: Other DOI: 10.1016/jcortex.2018.06.001

    Crossref
17. Ghada R.A. Taha , Hanan Hussein , Afrah Almanasef (2013). Two years’ outcome of autism in a sample of Egyptian and Saudi children . Middle East Current Psychiatry, 20(3), 122-130. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1097/01.xme.0000430434.74114.01 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2319388650

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
18. Anne Möllmann , Nina Heinrichs , Arvid Herwig (2024). A conceptual framework on body representations and their relevance for mental disorders . Frontiers in Psychology, 14, 1231640-1231640. Frontiers Media SA.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1231640 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4390610206

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
19. Chihiro Itoi , Yuta Ujiie , Kanae Matsushima , Kohske Takahashi , Masakazu Ide (2022). Validation of the Japanese version of the Interoception Sensory Questionnaire for individuals with autism spectrum disorder . Scientific Reports, 12(1), 21722. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-25883-y OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4311745497

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
20. Carolyn M. Tucker , Michael Marsiske , Kenneth G. Rice , Jessica Jones Nielson , Keith Herman (2011). Patient-centered culturally sensitive health care: Model testing and refinement. Health Psychology, 30(3), 342-350. American Psychological Association (APA).

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1037/a0022967 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2036418561

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
21. Carissa J. Cascio , Jennifer H. Foss‐Feig , Courtney P. Burnette , Jessica L. Heacock , Akua A. Cosby (2012). The rubber hand illusion in children with autism spectrum disorders: delayed influence of combined tactile and visual input on proprioception . Autism, 16(4), 406-419. SAGE Publications.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/1362361311430404 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2164541626

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
22. Raphael Bernier , Alice Mao , Jennifer Yen (2010). Psychopathology, Families, and Culture: Autism . Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 19(4), 855-867. Elsevier BV.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/j.chc.2010.07.005 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2068040982

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
23. Danielle Ropar , Katie Greenfield , Alastair D. Smith , Mark Carey , Roger Newport (2018). Body representation difficulties in children and adolescents with autism may be due to delayed development of visuo-tactile temporal binding . Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 29, 78-85. Elsevier BV.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/j.dcn.2017.04.007 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2608450283

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
24. Kimberly B. Schauder , Lisa E. Mash , Lauren K. Bryant , Carissa J. Cascio (2015). Interoceptive ability and body awareness in autism spectrum disorder . Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 131, 193-200. Elsevier BV.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2014.11.002 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2094877663

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
25. Geneviève Haag , Michel Botbol , Rozenn Graignic , Fernando Perez-Diaz , Guillaume Bronsard , Solenn Kermarrec et al. (2010). The Autism Psychodynamic Evaluation of Changes (APEC) scale: A reliability and validity study on a newly developed standardized psychodynamic assessment for youth with Pervasive Developmental Disorders . Journal of Physiology-Paris, 104(6), 323-336. Elsevier BV.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/j.jphysparis.2010.10.002 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2109365680

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
26. Skye Adams (2024). The Unmasking of Autism in South Africa and Nigeria . Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment, Volume 20, 947-955. Informa UK Limited.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.2147/ndt.s461650 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4396727763

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
27. Mayada Elsabbagh , Gauri Divan , Yun‐Joo Koh , Young Shin Kim , Shuaib Kauchali , Carlos Marcín et al. (2012). Global Prevalence of Autism and Other Pervasive Developmental Disorders . Autism Research, 5(3), 160-179. Wiley.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1002/aur.239 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2098251401

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
28. C. Le Menn-Tripi , A. Vachaud , N. Defas , J. Malvy , S. Roux , F. Bonnet-Brilhault (2019). L’évaluation sensori-psychomotrice dans l’autisme: un nouvel outil d’aide au diagnostic fonctionnel . L'Encéphale, 45(4), 312-319. Elsevier BV.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/j.encep.2018.12.003 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2924232965

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
29. Naveen Donthu , Satish Kumar , Debmalya Mukherjee , Nitesh Pandey , Weng Marc Lim (2021). How to conduct a bibliometric analysis: An overview and guidelines . Journal of Business Research, 133, 285. Elsevier BV.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/j.jbusres.2021.04.070 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3160856016

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
30. Maureen S. Durkin , Mayada Elsabbagh , Josephine Barbaro *Autistic author. Learn more… , Melissa Gladstone , Francesca Happé , Rosa A. Hoekstra et al. (2015). Autism screening and diagnosis in low-resource settings: challenges and opportunities to enhance research and services worldwide . Autism Res, 8(5), 473. Wiley.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1002/aur.1575 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2101840039

    AutiHub · Autistic Autism Scholarship Project Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
31. Shahad M. Alkhalifah , Hana AlArifi , Muhammad AlHeizan , Hesham Aldhalaan , Éric Fombonne (2020). Validation of the Arabic Version of the Two Sensory Processing Measure Questionnaires . Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 78, 101652. Elsevier BV.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/j.rasd.2020.101652 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3087465674

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
32. Barah Alallawi , Richard P. Hastings , Gemma Gray (2020). A Systematic Scoping Review of Social, Educational, and Psychological Research on Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder and their Family Members in Arab Countries and Cultures . Review Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 7(4), 364-382. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s40489-020-00198-8 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3013770771

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
33. Evan Suzman , Zachary J. Williams *Autistic author. Learn more… , Jacob I Feldman , Michelle D. Failla , Carissa J. Cascio , Mark T. Wallace et al. (2021). Psychometric validation and refinement of the Interoception Sensory Questionnaire (ISQ) in adolescents and adults on the autism spectrum . Molecular Autism, 12(1), 42. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1186/s13229-021-00440-y OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3118288323

    AutiHub · Autistic Autism Scholarship Project Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
34. Laura A. Brooks , Elizabeth Manias , Melissa J. Bloomer (2019). Culturally sensitive communication in healthcare: A concept analysis . Collegian, 26(3), 383-391. Elsevier BV.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/j.colegn.2018.09.007 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2896198938

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
35. Phaedra Longhurst *Autistic author. Learn more… , Jennifer Todd , Jane E. Aspell , Viren Swami (2024). Psychometric evaluation of a revised version of the body appreciation scale-2 for autistic adults (BAS-2A) . Body Image, 49, 101706. Elsevier BV.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/j.bodyim.2024.101706 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4393332747

    AutiHub · Autistic Autism Scholarship Project Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
36. Jamal M. Alkhateeb , Muna S. Hadidi , Amal J. Alkhateeb (2016). Inclusion of children with developmental disabilities in Arab countries: A review of the research literature from 1990 to 2014 . Research in Developmental Disabilities, 49-50, 60-75. Elsevier BV.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/j.ridd.2015.11.005 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2194789530

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
37. I. Bertilsson , J. Melin , C. Brogårdh , A. Opheim , A.L. Gyllensten , E. Björksell et al. (2024). Measurement properties of the Body Awareness Scale Movement Quality (BAS MQ) in persons on the autism spectrum: A preliminary Rasch analysis . Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies, 38, 464-473. Elsevier BV.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/j.jbmt.2024.01.004 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4391071972

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
38. Berta De-María , Gabriela Topa , M. Angeles López-González (2024). Cultural Competence Interventions in European Healthcare: A Scoping Review . Healthcare, 12(10), 1040. MDPI AG.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.3390/healthcare12101040 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4397003800

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
39. Elisabeth Söchting , Johannes Hartl , Martin Riederer , Christian Schönauer , Hannes Kaufmann , Claus Lamm (2015). Development of Tests to Evaluate the Sensory Abilities of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder . Procedia Computer Science, 67, 193-203. Elsevier BV.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/j.procs.2015.09.263 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2217712292

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
40. Charushila Rukadikar , Snehalata Mali , Ritu Bajpai , Atul Rukadikar , Amit K. Singh (2022). A review on cultural competency in medical education . Journal of Family Medicine and Primary Care, 11(8), 4319-4329. Medknow.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.4103/jfmpc.jfmpc_2503_21 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4295345865

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
41. Mariana Merino , José Francisco Tornero-Aguilera , Alejandro Rubio-Zarapuz , Carlota Valeria Villanueva-Tobaldo , Alexandra Martín-Rodríguez , Vicente Javier Clemente-Suárez (2024). Body Perceptions and Psychological Well-Being: A Review of the Impact of Social Media and Physical Measurements on Self-Esteem and Mental Health with a Focus on Body Image Satisfaction and Its Relationship with Cultural and Gender Factors . Healthcare, 12(14), 1396. MDPI AG.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.3390/healthcare12141396 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4400582835

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
42. Zeqi Hao , Yuyu Shi , Lina Huang , Jiawei Sun , Mengting Li , Yanyan Gao et al. (2022). The Atypical Effective Connectivity of Right Temporoparietal Junction in Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Multi-Site Study . Frontiers in Neuroscience, 16, 927556-927556. Frontiers Media SA.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2022.927556 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4285803370

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
43. Hanan Hussein , Ghada R.A. Taha (2013). Autism spectrum disorders . Middle East Current Psychiatry, 20(3), 106-116. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1097/01.xme.0000430433.49160.a4 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2322684725

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
44. Marzieh Abdoli , Marco Scotto Rosato , Avinash Desousa , Paolo Cotrufo (2024). Cultural Differences in Body Image: A Systematic Review . Social Sciences, 13(6), 305. MDPI AG.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.3390/socsci13060305 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4399364267

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
45. Amanda H. Waterman , Oscar T. Giles , Jelena Havelka , Sumaya Ali , Peter R. Culmer , Richard M. Wilkie et al. (2017). Sensorimotor control dynamics and cultural biases: learning to move in the right (or left) direction . Royal Society Open Science, 4(2), 160806. The Royal Society.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1098/rsos.160806 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2590661549

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
46. Rebecca McNally Keehn , Mandy Rispoli , Chelagat Saina , Amira Nafiseh , Eren Oyungu , Felicita Wangechi Omari et al. (2024). Pepea Pamoja: † Applying the Ecological Validity Framework to co‐develop a wellbeing and behavioural training program for caregivers of young children with autism in low‐resource settings of Kenya and the United States . Child: Care, Health and Development, 50(4), e13299. Wiley.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1111/cch.13299 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4400355668

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
47. Christina D. Kang-Yi , Roy Richard Grinker , Rinad Beidas , Aneeza Agha , Rachel Russell , Sandeep B. Shah et al. (2018). Influence of Community-Level Cultural Beliefs about Autism on Families’ and Professionals’ Care for Children . Transcultural Psychiatry, 55(5), 623-647. SAGE Publications.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/1363461518779831 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2811185259

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
48. Sayyed Ali Samadi (2022). Overview of Services for Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) in Low- and Middle-Income Countries (LMICs) and among Immigrants and Minority Groups in High-Income Countries (HICs) . Brain Sciences, 12(12), 1682. MDPI AG.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.3390/brainsci12121682 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4311872385

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
49. Desire Alice Naigaga , David Jahanlu , Hanne Marit Claudius , Anne Karine Gjerlaug , Ingrid Barikmo , Sigrun Henjum (2018). Body size perceptions and preferences favor overweight in adult Saharawi refugees . Nutrition Journal, 17(1), 17. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1186/s12937-018-0330-5 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2796069885

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
50. Shondell V. Hickson (2023). Assessment of cultural competency . Clinics in Integrated Care, 21, 100173. Elsevier BV.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/j.intcar.2023.100173 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4387226702

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
51. Fei Wang , Li Lu , Shi-Bin Wang , Ling Zhang , Chee H. Ng , Gabor S. Ungvari et al. (2018). The prevalence of autism spectrum disorders in China: a comprehensive meta-analysis . International Journal of Biological Sciences, 14(7), 717-725. Ivyspring International Publisher.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.7150/ijbs.24063 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2805634078

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
52. Chris Dijkerman , Bigna Lenggenhager (2018). The body and cognition: The relation between body representations and higher level cognitive and social processes . Cortex, 104, 133-139. Elsevier BV.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/j.cortex.2018.06.001 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2809124434

    OpenAlex
53. Nicholas Aderinto , Deji Olatunji , Oluwatobi Idowu (2023). Autism in Africa: prevalence, diagnosis, treatment and the impact of social and cultural factors on families and caregivers: a review . Annals of Medicine & Surgery, 85(9), 4410-4416. Ovid Technologies (Wolters Kluwer Health).

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1097/ms9.0000000000001107 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4386407816

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
54. Ipsita Dey , Sreerupa Chakrabarty , Rajanya Nandi , Rakshita Shekhar , Sakhi Singhi , Shoba Nayar et al. (2024). Autism community priorities in diverse low-resource settings: A country-wide scoping exercise in India . Autism, 28(1), 187-198. SAGE Publications.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/13623613231154067 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4361267800

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
55. Elisa De Stefani , Doriana De Marco (2019). Language, Gesture, and Emotional Communication: An Embodied View of Social Interaction . Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 2063-2063. Frontiers Media SA.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02063 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2970588956

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
56. Bo Yang , Jing Liao , Xiaoqiang Tang , Mengcan Wang (2025). Loving body loving life: body image and life satisfaction in different cultures . Current Psychology, 44(5), 3643-3651. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s12144-025-07386-x OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4406891439

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
57. Irga Safira , Rahmadsyah Rangkuti , Ely Hayati Nasution , Yulianus Harefa (2020). Non-Verbal Communication by Autistic Children . ELS Journal on Interdisciplinary Studies in Humanities, 3(4), 492-505. Faculty of Cultural Sciences, Hasanuddin University.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.34050/elsjish.v3i4.8065 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3088012053

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
58. Joanna Mourad , Kim Daniels , Katleen Bogaerts , Martin Desseilles , Bruno Bonnechère (2024). Innovative Digital Phenotyping Method to Assess Body Representations in Autistic Adults: A Perspective on Multisensor Evaluation . Sensors, 24(20), 6523. MDPI AG.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.3390/s24206523 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4403305038

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
59. (n.d.). Chapter 1. “The phenomenology of body memory” 9 22 Fuchs T Koch SC Fuchs T Summa M Müller C Amsterdam, The Netherlands: John Benjamins Publishing Company Body memory, metaphor and movement 2012

    Type: Other

    Crossref
60. Shuangyu Li , Katherine Miles , Riya E. George , Candan Ertubey , Peter Pype , Jia Liu (2023). A critical review of cultural competence frameworks and models in medical and health professional education: A meta-ethnographic synthesis: BEME Guide No. 79 . Medical Teacher, 45(10), 1085-1107. Informa UK Limited.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1080/0142159x.2023.2174419 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4319655776

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
61. Su-hua Wang , Samantha Basch (2024). A cultural perspective of action-based learning by infants and young children . Advances in Child Development and Behavior, 67, 164-199. Elsevier.

    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/bs.acdb.2024.07.003 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4401304876

    Crossref OpenAlex
62. Mohammed Al-Beltagi (2023). Pre-autism: What a paediatrician should know about early diagnosis of autism‎ . World Journal of Clinical Pediatrics, 12(5), 273-294. Baishideng Publishing Group Inc..

    Type: Article DOI: 10.5409/wjcp.v12.i5.273 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4389468296

    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
63. (2023). Advances in CHILD DEVELOPMENTAND BEHAVIOR . In Advances in Child Development and Behavior (pp. i). Elsevier.

    Type: Book chapter DOI: 10.1016/s0065-2407(23)00022-8 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4385060274

    OpenAlex
64. Misic-Ilic (2004). Language and culture studies - wonderland through the linguistic looking glass . Facta universitatis: series linguistics and literature, 1.

    Type: Other

    Crossref