From Granular Grief to Binary Belief: A Collaborative Optimization of Annotation Techniques for Anti-Autistic Language

This publication is included in the Autistic Autism Scholarship Project. one author of this publication is identified as autistic in the project.

About the autistic author marker

Metadata sources used for this reference

OpenAlex Crossref BibTeX OpenCitations
Learn more about the sources used

Rizvi, N., Flores, A. M., Rizvi, M., Ousidhoum, N., & Munyaka, I. N. S. (2025). From Granular Grief to Binary Belief: A Collaborative Optimization of Annotation Techniques for Anti-Autistic Language. Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction, 9(7), 1-23. https://doi.org/10.1145/3757478

Publication date: 16 Oct 2025 Added to AutiHub: 20 Oct 2026 Type: Article Article language: English
Publisher source (DOI) Full text OpenAlex source

This publication is integrated into AutiHub through:

Authors

Publication authors
5
Publication authors identified as autistic
1 / 5 (20.0%)
  1. Naba Rizvi *
  2. Alexis Morales Flores
  3. Mohammad Rizvi
  4. Nedjma Ousidhoum
  5. Imani N. S. Munyaka

Abstract

Annotating text for subjective tasks, such as labeling ableist and anti-autistic texts, is a challenge that has attracted significant attention as commonly adopted annotation paradigms, e.g., using majority voting, fall short in capturing the nuances of hate speech or bias annotations. Labeling ableist and anti-autistic texts presents similar challenges in addition to the need for familiarity with autism and anti-autistic discrimination. In this paper, we adopt a collaborative and annotator-centric approach to study the impact of various annotation techniques. We recruit 6 participants to annotate sets of sentences from our 11,596 sentence corpus. The groups annotate through schemes focused on score-based classification, algorithmic labeling, and comparison-based labeling to identify instances of anti-autistic ableist speech. As a result of changes in annotation schemes, our annotator groups shift from a worse-than-chance agreement to moderate agreement. This suggests that implementing annotator group discussion and collecting annotator feedback is likely to result in improved agreement scores in difficult and highly subjective tasks. Our results highlight the importance of a collaborative approach in highly subjective classification tasks as it may lead to an improved understanding of their own biases, and large improvements in agreement scores, particularly among annotators with higher rates of disagreement. Warning: This paper contains examples that may be offensive or upsetting, including explicit slurs used against people with disabilities.

Bibliography cited by this reference

Cited references are imported from external metadata sources when they are available. The list may be partial.

Cited bibliography overview

These indicators describe the bibliography cited by this publication. An author name is counted each time it appears in one cited reference, so the same person can be counted more than once. Names not yet linked to an author already present in AutiHub are treated as unknown, not as non-autistic. Last computed: 28 Oct 2026 01:01.

Cited references
94
With a DOI
49
Without a DOI, from raw bibliography text
40
7 / 94 (7.4%) cited references include at least one author identified as autistic.
References with data to complete
12 / 94 (12.8%)
References with detected author names
82 / 94 (87.2%)
Without detected author names
12
Without a structured title
12
Without a stable identifier
40
References with raw author names still to review
12
References with external metadata lookup issues
0
These indicators apply to cited references displayed on this page, after technical duplicates have been merged. A reference without a DOI can still support author statistics when a title and author names are available.
Author names detected in the cited bibliography
217
From DOI or external metadata
217
From validated raw bibliography text
0
Raw names already validated
0
Raw names still to review
12
33 / 217 (15.2%) names are linked to an author already present in AutiHub. 184 / 217 (84.8%) names are not yet linked.
Names linked to a person identified as autistic
10 / 217 (4.6%)
Calculated across all author names detected in the cited bibliography. Among names linked to an author already present in AutiHub: 10 / 33 (30.3%). Distinct people identified as autistic: 9 / 210 (4.3%).
  1. Gerard Goggin , Christopher Newell (2005). Disability Studies Quarterly .
    Type: Article OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W183375648
    OpenAlex
  2. Alharbi Basma (2020). Inji Ibrahim Jaber, and Xiangliang Zhang . Inji Ibrahim Jaber, and Xiangliang Zhang.
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  3. Georgi Karadzhov , Tom Stafford , Andreas Vlachos (2022). What makes you change your mind? An empirical investigation in online group decision-making conversations . Proceedings of the 23rd Annual Meeting of the Special Interest Group on Discourse and Dialogue, 552-563. Association for Computational Linguistics.
    Type: Other DOI: 10.18653/v1/2022.sigdial-1.52 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4389009400
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  4. Rainer Greifeneder , Herbert Bless , Klaus Fiedler (2004). Social Cognition: How Individuals Construct Social Reality .
    Type: Article OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W583714418
    OpenAlex
  5. Fatimah Alkomah , Xiaogang Ma (2022). A Literature Review of Textual Hate Speech Detection Methods and Datasets . Information, 13(6), 273. MDPI AG.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.3390/info13060273 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4281889937
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  6. Tharindu Cyril Weerasooriya , Alexander Ororbia , Raj Bhensadadia , Ashiqur KhudaBukhsh , Christopher Homan (2023). Disagreement Matters: Preserving Label Diversity by Jointly Modeling Item and Annotator Label Distributions with DisCo . Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: ACL 2023, 4679-4695. Association for Computational Linguistics.
    Type: Other DOI: 10.18653/v1/2023.findings-acl.287 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4385572279
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  7. Anna De Liddo , Ágnes Sándor , Simon Buckingham Shum (2012). Contested Collective Intelligence: Rationale, Technologies, and a Human-Machine Annotation Study . Computer Supported Cooperative Work (CSCW), 21(4-5), 417-448. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10606-011-9155-x OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W1996768886
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  8. DSMTF American Psychiatric Association (2013). American Psychiatric Association, et al . American Psychiatric Association, et al.
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  9. Ji Ho Park , Jamin Shin , Pascale Fung (2018). Reducing Gender Bias in Abusive Language Detection . Proceedings of the 2018 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing, 2799-2804. Association for Computational Linguistics.
    Type: Other DOI: 10.18653/v1/d18-1302 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2888167352
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  10. Barbara Plank , Dirk Hovy , Anders Søgaard (2014). Linguistically debatable or just plain wrong? Proceedings of the 52nd Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 2: Short Papers), 507-511. Association for Computational Linguistics.
    Type: Other DOI: 10.3115/v1/p14-2083 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2252039660
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  11. Valerio (n.d.). CEUR workshop proceedings . CEUR workshop proceedings, 2776, 31.
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  12. Sarah M. Parsloe (2015). Discourses of Disability, Narratives of Community: Reclaiming an Autistic Identity Online . Journal of Applied Communication Research, 43(3), 336-356. Informa UK Limited.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1080/00909882.2015.1052829 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2253794361
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  13. Bless Herbert (n.d.). Social cognition: How individuals construct social reality . Social cognition: How individuals construct social reality.
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  14. Zeerak Waseem (2016). Are You a Racist or Am I Seeing Things? Annotator Influence on Hate Speech Detection on Twitter . Proceedings of the First Workshop on NLP and Computational Social Science, 138-142. Association for Computational Linguistics.
    Type: Other DOI: 10.18653/v1/w16-5618 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2563826943
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  15. Dave Randall (2016). What Is Common in Accounts of Common Ground? Computer Supported Cooperative Work (CSCW), 25(4-5), 409-423. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10606-016-9256-7 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2471221444
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  16. Kathleen R. Bogart , Samuel W. Logan , Christina Hospodar , Erica Woekel (2019). Disability models and attitudes among college students with and without disabilities. Stigma and Health, 4(3), 260-263. American Psychological Association (APA).
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1037/sah0000142 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2803791385
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  17. Matan Halevy , Camille Harris , Amy Bruckman , Diyi Yang , Ayanna Howard (2021). Mitigating Racial Biases in Toxic Language Detection with an Equity-Based Ensemble Framework . Equity and Access in Algorithms, Mechanisms, and Optimization, 1-11. ACM.
    Type: Other DOI: 10.1145/3465416.3483299 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3202038256
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  18. Nattapat Boonprakong , Gaole He , Ujwal Gadiraju , Niels Van Berkel , Danding Wang , Si Chen et al. (2023). Workshop on Understanding and Mitigating Cognitive Biases in Human-AI Collaboration . Computer Supported Cooperative Work and Social Computing, 512-517. ACM.
    Type: Other DOI: 10.1145/3584931.3611284 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4387606708
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  19. Jaemarie Solyst , Ellia Yang , Shixian Xie , Amy Ogan , Jessica Hammer , Motahhare Eslami (2023). The Potential of Diverse Youth as Stakeholders in Identifying and Mitigating Algorithmic Bias for a Future of Fairer AI . Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction, 7(CSCW2), 1-27. Association for Computing Machinery (ACM).
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1145/3610213 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4387344911
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  20. Elizabeth Chase (2017). Enhanced member checks: Reflections and insights from a participantresearcher collaboration . The Qualitative Report, 22, 2689. Nova Southeastern University.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.46743/2160-3715/2017.2957 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2769032568
    Crossref OpenAlex
  22. Lauren Wilcox , Robin Brewer , Fernando Diaz (2023). AI Consent Futures: A Case Study on Voice Data Collection with Clinicians . Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction, 7(CSCW2), 1-30. Association for Computing Machinery (ACM).
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1145/3610107 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4387328585
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  23. Marno Retief , Rantoa Letšosa (2018). Models of disability: A brief overview . HTS Teologiese Studies / Theological Studies, 74(1), a4738. AOSIS.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.4102/hts.v74i1.4738 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2794082668
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  24. Kristen Bottema-Beutel (2021). Noah J Sasson, and Brittany N Hand. Noah J Sasson, and Brittany N Hand..
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  25. Marta Sandri , Elisa Leonardelli , Sara Tonelli , Elisabetta Jezek (2023). Why Don’t You Do It Right? Analysing Annotators’ Disagreement in Subjective Tasks . Proceedings of the 17th Conference of the European Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics, 2428-2441. Association for Computational Linguistics.
    Type: Other DOI: 10.18653/v1/2023.eacl-main.178 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4386566656
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  27. Buolamwini Joy (2018). Conference on fairness, accountability and transparency. PMLR, 77-91 . Conference on fairness, accountability and transparency. PMLR, 77-91.
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  28. Nedjma Ousidhoum , Xinran Zhao , Tianqing Fang , Yangqiu Song , Dit-Yan Yeung (2021). Probing Toxic Content in Large Pre-Trained Language Models . Proceedings of the 59th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics and the 11th International Joint Conference on Natural Language Processing (Volume 1: Long Papers), 4262-4274. Association for Computational Linguistics.
    Type: Other DOI: 10.18653/v1/2021.acl-long.329 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3173465197
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  29. Simon M. Bury , Rachel Jellett , Alexandra Haschek , Michael Wenzel , Darren Hedley , Jennifer R. Spoor (2023). Understanding language preference: Autism knowledge, experience of stigma and autism identity . Autism, 27(6), 1588-1600. SAGE Publications.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/13623613221142383 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4311280578
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  30. Federico Cabitza , Andrea Campagner , Valerio Basile (2023). Toward a Perspectivist Turn in Ground Truthing for Predictive Computing . Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence, 37(6), 6860-6868. Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence (AAAI).
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1609/aaai.v37i6.25840 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3197587259
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  32. Desmond Patton , Philipp Blandfort , William Frey , Michael Gaskell , Svebor Karaman (2019). Annotating Social Media Data From Vulnerable Populations: Evaluating Disagreement Between Domain Experts and Graduate Student Annotators . Proceedings of the Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences. Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences.
    Type: Other DOI: 10.24251/hicss.2019.260 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2926526813
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  33. Calhoun Kendra (2023). They Edited Out her Nip Nops'': Linguistic Innovation as Textual Censorship Avoidance on TikTok. Language@internet . They Edited Out her Nip Nops'': Linguistic Innovation as Textual Censorship Avoidance on TikTok. Language@internet.
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  35. Vittorio Lingiardi , Nicola Carone , Giovanni Semeraro , Cataldo Musto , Marilisa D’Amico , Silvia Brena (2020). Mapping Twitter hate speech towards social and sexual minorities: a lexicon-based approach to semantic content analysis . Behaviour & Information Technology, 39(7), 711-721. Informa UK Limited.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1080/0144929x.2019.1607903 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2941193813
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  36. Benedetta Catanzariti , Srravya Chandhiramowuli , Suha Mohamed , Sarayu Natarajan , Shantanu Prabhat , Noopur Raval et al. (2021). The Global Labours of AI and Data Intensive Systems . Companion Publication of the 2021 Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work and Social Computing, 319-322. ACM.
    Type: Other DOI: 10.1145/3462204.3481725 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3208630307
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  37. Aida Mostafazadeh Davani , Mohammad Atari , Brendan Kennedy , Morteza Dehghani (2023). Hate Speech Classifiers Learn Normative Social Stereotypes . Transactions of the Association for Computational Linguistics, 11, 300-319. MIT Press.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1162/tacl_a_00550 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4328051875
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  38. Maarten Sap , Dallas Card , Saadia Gabriel , Yejin Choi , Noah A. Smith (2019). The Risk of Racial Bias in Hate Speech Detection . Proceedings of the 57th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics, 1668-1678. Association for Computational Linguistics.
    Type: Other DOI: 10.18653/v1/p19-1163 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2949678053
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  39. (n.d.). Bianca Cepollaro Marta Jorba and Valentina Petrolini. [n.d.]. The case of 'Autistic'. Pejorative Uses and Reclamation. Ergo. An Open Access Journal in Philosophy ([n.d.]).
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  40. Nedjma Ousidhoum , Zizheng Lin , Hongming Zhang , Yangqiu Song , Dit-Yan Yeung (2019). Multilingual and Multi-Aspect Hate Speech Analysis . Proceedings of the 2019 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing and the 9th International Joint Conference on Natural Language Processing (EMNLP-IJCNLP), 4674-4683. Association for Computational Linguistics.
    Type: Other DOI: 10.18653/v1/d19-1474 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2970269073
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  41. Srravya Chandhiramowuli (2024). Making AI Work: Tracing Human Labour in the Supply Chains of Dataset Production . Companion Publication of the 2024 Conference on Computer-Supported Cooperative Work and Social Computing, 47-49. ACM.
    Type: Other DOI: 10.1145/3678884.3682055 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4404331811
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  42. Sami Koivunen , Saara Ala-Luopa , Thomas Olsson , Arja Haapakorpi (2022). The March of Chatbots into Recruitment: Recruiters’ Experiences, Expectations, and Design Opportunities . Computer Supported Cooperative Work (CSCW), 31(3), 487-516. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10606-022-09429-4 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4281669668
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  43. Katta Spiel , Christopher Frauenberger , Os Keyes , Geraldine Fitzpatrick (2019). Agency of Autistic Children in Technology Research—A Critical Literature Review . ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction, 26(6), 1-40. Association for Computing Machinery (ACM).
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1145/3344919 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2988620880
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  44. Carlos E. González-Gallardo , Azucena Montes , Gerardo Sierra , J. Antonio Núñez-Juárez , Adolfo Jonathan Salinas-López , Juan Ek (2015). CEUR Workshop Proceedings . conference.
    Type: Other OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2992252352
    OpenAlex
  45. Karrie Karahalios , Andrés Monroy‐Hernández , Airi Lampinen , Geraldine Fitzpatrick (2018). Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction .
    Type: Article OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3040472729
    OpenAlex
  46. Davidson Thomas (2019). Racial bias in hate speech and abusive language detection datasets. arXiv preprint arXiv:1905.12516 . Racial bias in hate speech and abusive language detection datasets. arXiv preprint arXiv:1905.12516.
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  47. Tarleton Gillespie (2020). Content moderation, AI, and the question of scale . Big Data & Society, 7(2). SAGE Publications.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/2053951720943234 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3081389081
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  48. De Hooge Anna N (2019). Disability Studies Quarterly . Disability Studies Quarterly, 39.
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  49. Dong Qingxiu (2022). A survey on in-context learning. arXiv preprint arXiv:2301.00234 . A survey on in-context learning. arXiv preprint arXiv:2301.00234.
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  50. Ashkan Kazemi , Kiran Garimella , Devin Gaffney , Scott Hale (2021). Claim Matching Beyond English to Scale Global Fact-Checking . Proceedings of the 59th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics and the 11th International Joint Conference on Natural Language Processing (Volume 1: Long Papers), 4504-4517. Association for Computational Linguistics.
    Type: Other DOI: 10.18653/v1/2021.acl-long.347
    Crossref OpenCitations
  51. Katta Spiel , Kathrin Gerling (2021). The Purpose of Play . ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction, 28(2), 1-40. Association for Computing Machinery (ACM).
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1145/3432245 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3156336556
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  52. Fleisig Eve (2023). Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing. https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:258615411 . Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing. https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:258615411.
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  53. (n.d.). Carli Friedman. [n.d.]. Ableist Language & Disability Professionals: Differences in Language Based on Professionals' Demographics. ([n.d.]).
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  54. (n.d.). Maysa Gama. [n.d.]. Artificially Intelligent and Implicitly Ableist: Analyzing Language Model Bias Towards Persons with Disabilities. ([n.d.]).
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  55. Gerald Rau , Yu-Shan Shih (2021). Evaluation of Cohen's kappa and other measures of inter-rater agreement for genre analysis and other nominal data . Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 53, 101026. Elsevier BV.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/j.jeap.2021.101026 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3178669050
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  56. Amanda Taboas , Karla Doepke , Corinne Zimmerman (2023). Preferences for identity-first versus person-first language in a US sample of autism stakeholders . Autism, 27(2), 565-570. SAGE Publications.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/13623613221130845 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4306157884
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  57. Marta Marchiori Manerba , Sara Tonelli (2021). Fine-Grained Fairness Analysis of Abusive Language Detection Systems with CheckList . Proceedings of the 5th Workshop on Online Abuse and Harms (WOAH 2021), 81-91. Association for Computational Linguistics.
    Type: Other DOI: 10.18653/v1/2021.woah-1.9 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3184202453
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  58. Go Alec (2009). Twitter sentiment classification using distant supervision. CS224N project report . Stanford, 1, 2009.
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  59. Gonen Hila (2019). Lipstick on a pig: Debiasing methods cover up systematic gender biases in word embeddings but do not remove them. arXiv preprint arXiv:1903.03862 . Lipstick on a pig: Debiasing methods cover up systematic gender biases in word embeddings but do not remove them. arXiv preprint arXiv:1903.03862.
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  60. Shivani Kapania , Alex S Taylor , Ding Wang (2023). A hunt for the Snark: Annotator Diversity in Data Practices . Proceedings of the 2023 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, 1-15. ACM.
    Type: Other DOI: 10.1145/3544548.3580645 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4366588458
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  61. Greally John (2021). AUTISM GLOSSARY: ACRONYMS & ABBREVIATIONS - linkedin.com. https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/autism-glossary-acronyms-abbreviations-john-greally/. [Accessed 19-06-2024]. AUTISM GLOSSARY: ACRONYMS & ABBREVIATIONS - linkedin.com. https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/autism-glossary-acronyms-abbreviations-john-greally/. [Accessed 19-06-2024]..
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  62. Angie Zhang (2024). Empowering and Centering Impacted Stakeholders in AI Design . Companion Publication of the 2024 Conference on Computer-Supported Cooperative Work and Social Computing, 50-53. ACM.
    Type: Other DOI: 10.1145/3678884.3682053 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4404331925
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  63. Danula Hettiachchi , Mark Sanderson , Jorge Goncalves , Simo Hosio , Gabriella Kazai , Matthew Lease et al. (2021). Investigating and Mitigating Biases in Crowdsourced Data . Companion Publication of the 2021 Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work and Social Computing, 331-334. ACM.
    Type: Other DOI: 10.1145/3462204.3481729 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3208472527
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  64. Hafid Salim (2022). Proceedings of the 31st ACM International Conference on Information & Knowledge Management. 3988-3992 . Proceedings of the 31st ACM International Conference on Information & Knowledge Management. 3988-3992.
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  66. Melinda C Hall. 2019. Critical disability theory. (2019).
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  67. Hayes Andrew F (2007). Answering the call for a standard reliability measure for coding data. Communication methods and measures . Answering the call for a standard reliability measure for coding data. Communication methods and measures.
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  68. Nugent Selin E (2022). Towards trustworthy artificial intelligent systems . Springer International Publishing.
    Type: Book DOI: 10.1007/978-3-031-09823-9 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4295022019
    Crossref OpenAlex
  69. Hutchinson Ben (2020). Social biases in NLP models as barriers for persons with disabilities. arXiv preprint arXiv:2005.00813 . Social biases in NLP models as barriers for persons with disabilities. arXiv preprint arXiv:2005.00813.
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  70. Michael Yoder , Lynnette Ng , David West Brown , Kathleen Carley (2022). How Hate Speech Varies by Target Identity: A Computational Analysis . Proceedings of the 26th Conference on Computational Natural Language Learning (CoNLL), 27-39. Association for Computational Linguistics.
    Type: Other DOI: 10.18653/v1/2022.conll-1.3 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4385573162
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  71. Steven Kapp * (2013). difference, or both? Autism and neurodiversity. Developmental psychology . difference, or both? Autism and neurodiversity. Developmental psychology.
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  72. Jan-Christoph Klie , Richard Eckart de Castilho , Iryna Gurevych (2024). Analyzing Dataset Annotation Quality Management in the Wild . Computational Linguistics, 50(3), 817-866. MIT Press.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1162/coli_a_00516 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4393163454
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  73. Pranav Narayanan Venkit , Mukund Srinath , Shomir Wilson (2023). Automated Ableism: An Exploration of Explicit Disability Biases in Sentiment and Toxicity Analysis Models . Proceedings of the 3rd Workshop on Trustworthy Natural Language Processing (TrustNLP 2023), 26-34. Association for Computational Linguistics.
    Type: Other DOI: 10.18653/v1/2023.trustnlp-1.3 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4385734190
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  74. (n.d.). Emma Lagren. 2023. Artificial intelligence as a tool in social media content moderation. B. S. thesis.
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  75. Llansó Emma (2020). Paddy Leerssen, and Jaron Harambam. Paddy Leerssen, and Jaron Harambam..
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  76. Shane Timmons , Frances McGinnity , Eamonn Carroll (2024). Ableism differs by disability, gender and social context: Evidence from vignette experiments . British Journal of Social Psychology, 63(2), 637-657. Wiley.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1111/bjso.12696 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4388730852
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  77. Mariani, Joseph, J (2018). Proceedings of the Eleventh International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC 2018) . HAL (Le Centre pour la Communication Scientifique Directe).
    Type: Other OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4391156274
    OpenAlex
  78. (n.d.). World Health Organization. [n.d.]. Autism. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/autism-spectrum-disorders . [Accessed 28-06-2024].
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  79. Naba Rizvi * (2025). Proceedings of the CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. 1-18 . Proceedings of the CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. 1-18. ACM.
    Type: Other DOI: 10.1145/3706598 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4409735071
    Crossref OpenAlex
  80. Kamakshya P Patra and Orlando De Jesus. 2020. Echolalia. (2020).
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  81. (n.d.). Naba Rizvi Andrew Begel and Hala Annabi. 2021. Inclusive Interpersonal Communication Education for Technology Professionals.. In AMCIS.
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  82. Sanguinetti Manuela (2018). Proceedings of the Eleventh International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC . Proceedings of the Eleventh International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC.
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  83. Sap Maarten (2021). Annotators with attitudes: How annotator beliefs and identities bias toxic language detection. arXiv preprint arXiv:2111.07997 . Annotators with attitudes: How annotator beliefs and identities bias toxic language detection. arXiv preprint arXiv:2111.07997.
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  84. (n.d.). Amy Sequenzia. 2014. Is Autism Speaks a Hate Group? - Autistic Women & Nonbinary Network (AWN) - awnnetwork.org. https://awnnetwork.org/is-autism-speaks-a-hate-group/ . [Accessed 19-06-2024].
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  85. Jonathan A Smith Michael Larkin and Paul Flowers. 2021. Interpretative phenomenological analysis: Theory method and research. (2021).
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  86. (n.d.). Kaggle Team. 2019. May 2015 Reddit Comments. https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/kaggle/reddit-comments-may-2015 [Accessed 20-06-2024].
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  87. Thibault Ronnie (2014). Can autistics redefine autism? The cultural politics of autistic activism . Trans-scripts, 4, 57.
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  88. Venkit Pranav Narayanan (2021). Identification of bias against people with disabilities in sentiment analysis and toxicity detection models. arXiv preprint arXiv:2111.13259 . Identification of bias against people with disabilities in sentiment analysis and toxicity detection models. arXiv preprint arXiv:2111.13259.
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  89. Vigna Fabio Del (2017). Hate Me Not: Hate Speech Detection on Facebook. In Italian Conference on Cybersecurity. https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:8293149 . Hate Me Not: Hate Speech Detection on Facebook. In Italian Conference on Cybersecurity. https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:8293149.
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  90. Wan Ruyuan (2023). Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence . Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence, 37, 14523.
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  91. Wise Sonny Jane (n.d.). We're All Neurodiverse: How to Build a Neurodiversity-Affirming Future and Challenge Neuronormativity . We're All Neurodiverse: How to Build a Neurodiversity-Affirming Future and Challenge Neuronormativity.
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  92. Yu Bingjie (2019). Caring About Dissent: Online Community Moderation and Norm Evolution. In Volunteer Work: Mapping the Future of Moderation Research - A CSCW '19 Workshop. Caring About Dissent: Online Community Moderation and Norm Evolution. In Volunteer Work: Mapping the Future of Moderation Research - A CSCW '19 Workshop..
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  93. Annuska Zolyomi (2021). Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction . Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction, 5, 1.
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  94. (n.d.). Âutistic ûnion. 2012. What does the Âû after my name mean? https://www.facebook.com/AutisticUnion/posts/456270757745263/ . [Accessed 19-06-2024].
    Type: Other
    Crossref