Exploring the income, savings and debt levels of autistic adults living in Australia

This publication is included in the Autistic Autism Scholarship Project. one author of this publication is identified as autistic in the project.

About the autistic author marker

Metadata sources used for this reference

OpenAlex Crossref OpenCitations
Learn more about the sources used

Cai, R. Y., Gallagher, E., Haas, K., Love, A., & Gibbs, V. (2022). Exploring the income, savings and debt levels of autistic adults living in Australia. Advances in Autism, 9(1), 53-64. https://doi.org/10.1108/aia-01-2022-0004

Publication date: 2 Aug 2022 Added to AutiHub: 10 Sep 2026 Type: Article Article language: English
Publisher source (DOI) OpenAlex source

This publication is integrated into AutiHub through:

Authors

Publication authors
5
Publication authors identified as autistic
1 / 5 (20.0%)
  1. Ru Ying Cai
  2. Emma Gallagher *
  3. Kaaren Haas
  4. Abigail Love
  5. Vicki Gibbs

Abstract

Purpose Many autistic adults experience unemployment, which may impact their financial circumstances. However, no research has examined their personal financial circumstances. Therefore, this study aims to examine the self-reported income, savings and debt of autistic adults living in Australia, as well as the demographic associates and predictors of income and savings. Design/methodology/approach Sixty-four autistic adults aged 18–67 years (M age = 32.78, SD age = 11.36) completed an online survey containing questions relating to their financial circumstances and the autism spectrum quotient-short. Findings Overall, the authors found that many autistic adults are financially disadvantaged. The mode of income levels was below AU$25,000, which is substantially lower than the mean annual Australian full-time income of AU$89,123. Higher savings was associated with not having any debt or having a greater ability to repay debt. Autism traits were positively associated with income levels. As predicted, being employed was associated with and predicted higher income. People who were employed were four times more likely to have a higher income than unemployed individuals. The authors did not find a relationship between having a co-occurring mental condition with income or savings. The authors also did not find a significant association between employment status and savings. Practical implications These research findings have implications on how we can improve the financial circumstances of autistic adults and provide additional evidence for the importance of increasing employment opportunities for autistic individuals. Originality/value To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this is the first study to examine the personal financial circumstances of autistic adults.

Bibliography cited by this reference

Cited references are imported from external metadata sources when they are available. The list may be partial.

Cited bibliography overview

These indicators describe the bibliography cited by this publication. An author name is counted each time it appears in one cited reference, so the same person can be counted more than once. Names not yet linked to an author already present in AutiHub are treated as unknown, not as non-autistic. Last computed: 12 Sep 2026 18:19.

Cited references
48
With a DOI
35
Without a DOI, from raw bibliography text
12
2 / 48 (4.2%) cited references include at least one author identified as autistic.
References with data to complete
10 / 48 (20.8%)
References with detected author names
38 / 48 (79.2%)
Without detected author names
10
Without a structured title
9
Without a stable identifier
10
References with raw author names still to review
9
References with external metadata lookup issues
0
These indicators apply to cited references displayed on this page, after technical duplicates have been merged. A reference without a DOI can still support author statistics when a title and author names are available.
Author names detected in the cited bibliography
173
From DOI or external metadata
173
From validated raw bibliography text
0
Raw names already validated
0
Raw names still to review
15
46 / 173 (26.6%) names are linked to an author already present in AutiHub. 127 / 173 (73.4%) names are not yet linked.
Names linked to a person identified as autistic
3 / 173 (1.7%)
Calculated across all author names detected in the cited bibliography. Among names linked to an author already present in AutiHub: 3 / 46 (6.5%). Distinct people identified as autistic: 3 / 163 (1.8%).
  1. Brandon Vick , Kristine Jones , Sophie Mitra (2012). Poverty and severe psychiatric disorder in the US: evidence from the medical expenditure panel survey . The Journal of Mental Health Policy and Economics, 15(2), 83.
    Type: Article OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W126268014
    Crossref OpenAlex
  2. Johan Almenberg , Annamaria Lusardi , Jenny Säve‐Söderbergh , Roine Vestman (2021). Attitudes towards Debt and Debt Behavior* . The Scandinavian Journal of Economics, 123(3), 780-809. Wiley.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1111/sjoe.12419 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2888973973
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  3. Ellen K. Nyhus , Paul Webley (2001). The role of personality in household saving and borrowing behaviour . European Journal of Personality, 15(1_suppl), S85-S103. SAGE Publications.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1002/per.422 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2116289828
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  4. Monica Cuskelly (2006). Parents of adults with an intellectual disability . Family matters, (74), 20-25.
    Type: Article OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W1596120419
    OpenAlex
  5. Sarah D. Asebedo , Melissa J. Wilmarth , Martin C. Seay , Kristy Archuleta , Gary L. Brase , Maurice MacDonald (2019). Personality and Saving Behavior Among Older Adults . Journal of Consumer Affairs, 53(2), 488-519. Wiley.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1111/joca.12199 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2804569395
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  7. P. Willner , R. Bailey , R. Parry , S. Dymond (2010). Evaluation of the ability of people with intellectual disabilities to ‘weigh up’ information in two tests of financial reasoning . Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 54(4), 380-391. Wiley.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2788.2010.01260.x OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W1778224183
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  8. Australian Bureau of Statistics (2019), “Disability, ageing and carers, Australia: summary of findings”, available at: www.abs.gov.au/statistics/health/disability/disability-ageing-and-carers-australia-summary-findings/latest-release (accessed 21 March 2022).
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  9. Annie Harper , Ashley Clayton , Margaret Bailey , Louisa Foss-Kelly , Michael J. Sernyak , Michael Rowe (2015). Financial Health and Mental Health Among Clients of a Community Mental Health Center: Making the Connections . Psychiatric Services, 66(12), 1271-1276. American Psychiatric Association Publishing.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1176/appi.ps.201400438 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W1960710703
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  10. Australian Bureau of Statistics (2020), “Average weekly earnings, Australia”, available at: www.abs.gov.au/statistics/labour/earnings-and-work-hours/average-weekly-earnings-australia/latest-release (accessed 21 March 2022).
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  11. Peter K Lunt , Sonia M Livingstone (1991). Psychological, social and economic determinants of saving: comparing recurrent and total savings . Journal of Economic Psychology, 12(4), 621-641. Elsevier BV.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/0167-4870(91)90003-c OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2055661857
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  12. Susanna Baldwin , Debra Costley , Anthony Warren (2014). Employment Activities and Experiences of Adults with High-Functioning Autism and Asperger’s Disorder . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 44(10), 2440-2449. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10803-014-2112-z OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W1980367882
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  13. Jon Baio , Lisa Wiggins , Deborah L. Christensen , Matthew J Maenner , Julie Daniels , Zachary Warren et al. (2018). Prevalence of Autism Spectrum Disorder Among Children Aged 8 Years — Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring Network, 11 Sites, United States, 2014 . MMWR. Surveillance Summaries, 67(6), 1-23. Centers for Disease Control MMWR Office.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.15585/mmwr.ss6706a1 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2614349964
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  14. Judith A. Cook , Kim T. Mueser (2013). Economic security: An essential component of recovery. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal, 36(1), 1-3. American Psychological Association (APA).
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1037/h0094739 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W1985877279
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  15. David Nicholas , Malvina Klag (2020). Critical Reflections on Employment Among Autistic Adults . Autism in Adulthood, 2(4), 289-295. SAGE Publications.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1089/aut.2020.0006 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3037617460
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  16. Dave E Marcotte , Virginia Wilcox-Gök (2001). Estimating the employment and earnings costs of mental illness: recent developments in the United States . Social Science & Medicine, 53(1), 21-27. Elsevier BV.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/s0277-9536(00)00312-9 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2030102142
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  17. Simon Baron-Cohen , Sally Wheelwright , Richard Skinner , Joanne Martin , Emma Clubley (2001). The Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ): Evidence from Asperger Syndrome/High-Functioning Autism, Males and Females, Scientists and Mathematicians . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 31(1), 5-17. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1023/a:1005653411471 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2100254283
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  18. Jing Jian Xiao , Barbara O'Neill (2016). Consumer financial education and financial capability . International Journal of Consumer Studies, 40(6), 712-721. Wiley.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1111/ijcs.12285 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2341665425
    Crossref OpenCitations
  19. Angela Dew , Gwynnyth Llewellyn , Susan Balandin (2004). Post‐parental care: a new generation of sibling‐carers . Journal of Intellectual & Developmental Disability, 29(2), 176-179. Informa UK Limited.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1080/13668250410001709520 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2039781823
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  20. Mary Ager Caplan (2014). Financial Coping Strategies of Mental Health Consumers: Managing Social Benefits . Community Mental Health Journal, 50(4), 409-414. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10597-013-9674-7 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2040188985
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  21. James B. McCauley , Andrew Pickles , Marisela Huerta , Catherine Lord (2020). Defining Positive Outcomes in More and Less Cognitively Able Autistic Adults . Autism Research, 13(9), 1548-1560. Wiley.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1002/aur.2359 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3080278359
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  22. Assumpta Ryan , Laurence Taggart , Maria Truesdale‐Kennedy , Eamonn Slevin (2014). Issues in caregiving for older people with intellectual disabilities and their ageing family carers: a review and commentary . International Journal of Older People Nursing, 9(3), 217-226. Wiley.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1111/opn.12021 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2046057008
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  23. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2021), “Autism and developmental disabilities monitoring (ADDM) network”, available at: www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/addm.html (accessed 21 March 2022).
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  24. Darren Hedley , Ru Ying Cai , Mirko Uljarević , Mathilda Wilmot , Jennifer R. Spoor , Amanda Richdale et al. (2018). Transition to work: Perspectives from the autism spectrum . Autism, 22(5), 528-541. SAGE Publications.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/1362361316687697 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2605204670
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  25. Nancy Cheak‐Zamora , Michelle Teti , Clark Peters , Anna Maurer-Batjer (2017). Financial Capabilities Among Youth with Autism Spectrum Disorder . Journal of Child and Family Studies, 26(5), 1310-1317. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10826-017-0669-9 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2594218428
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  26. Elizabeth P. Davis , Walter R. Schumm (1987). Savings Behavior And Satisfaction With Savings: A Comparison Of Low‐ And High‐Income Groups . Home Economics Research Journal, 15(4), 247-256. Wiley.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/1077727x8701500405 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2058387379
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  27. Deborah A. Cobb-Clark , Sonja C. Kassenboehmer , Mathias G. Sinning (2016). Locus of control and savings . Journal of Banking & Finance, 73, 113-130. Elsevier BV.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/j.jbankfin.2016.06.013 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3125717023
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  28. Sonia M. Livingstone , Peter K. Lunt (1992). Predicting personal debt and debt repayment: Psychological, social and economic determinants . Journal of Economic Psychology, 13(1), 111-134. Elsevier BV.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/0167-4870(92)90055-c OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2081346407
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  29. Oscar G. Jiménez-Solomon , Pablo Méndez-Bustos , Margaret Swarbrick , Samantha Díaz , Sissy Silva , Maura Kelley et al. (2016). Peer-supported economic empowerment: A financial wellness intervention framework for people with psychiatric disabilities. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal, 39(3), 222-233. American Psychological Association (APA).
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1037/prj0000210 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2520643613
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  30. W. M. I. Suto , I. C. H. Clare , A. J. Holland , P. C. Watson (2005). Capacity to make financial decisions among people with mild intellectual disabilities . Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 49(3), 199-209. Wiley.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2788.2005.00635.x OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2086459669
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  31. Lisa A. Croen , Ousseny Zerbo , Yinge Qian , Maria L Massolo , Steve Rich , Stephen Sidney et al. (2015). The health status of adults on the autism spectrum . Autism, 19(7), 814-823. SAGE Publications.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/1362361315577517 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2108322879
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  32. Paul Shattuck , Sarah Carter Narendorf , Benjamin Cooper , Paul R. Sterzing , Mary Wagner , Julie Taylor (2012). Postsecondary Education and Employment Among Youth With an Autism Spectrum Disorder . Pediatrics, 129(6), 1042-1049. American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP).
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1542/peds.2011-2864 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2128138260
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  33. Aimee D. Prawitz , Judith Cohart (2014). Workplace financial education facilitates improvement in personal financial behaviors . Journal of Financial Counseling and Planning, 25(1), 5.
    Type: Preprint OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2096046532
    Crossref OpenAlex
  34. (2006). Parents of adults with an intellectual disability . Family Matters, 74, 20.
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  35. Jessica Dreaver , Craig Thompson , Sonya Girdler , Margareta Adolfsson , Melissa H. Black , Marita Falkmer (2020). Success Factors Enabling Employment for Adults on the Autism Spectrum from Employers’ Perspective . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 50(5), 1657-1667. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10803-019-03923-3 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2914690720
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  36. Rosa A. Hoekstra , Anna A. E. Vinkhuyzen , Sally Wheelwright , Meike Bartels , Dorret I. Boomsma , Simon Baron-Cohen et al. (2011). The Construction and Validation of an Abridged Version of the Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ-Short) . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 41(5), 589-596. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10803-010-1073-0 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2130501331
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  37. Barbara S. Saunders , J. Mick Tilford , Jill J. Fussell , Eldon G. Schulz , Patrick H. Casey , Dennis Z. Kuo (2015). Financial and employment impact of intellectual disability on families of children with autism. Families, Systems, & Health, 33(1), 36-45. American Psychological Association (APA).
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1037/fsh0000102 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2108644460
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  38. Marie Djela (2021). Change of autism narrative is required to improve employment of autistic people . Advances in Autism, 7(1), 86-100. Emerald.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1108/aia-11-2019-0041 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3142120926
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  39. PHYLIS M. MANSFIELD , MARY BETH PINTO (2008). Consumer Vulnerability and Credit Card Knowledge Among Developmentally Disabled Citizens . Journal of Consumer Affairs, 42(3), 425-438. Wiley.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1111/j.1745-6606.2008.00115.x OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2113210829
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  40. Susan M Hayward , Keith R. McVilly , Mark A Stokes (2019). Autism and employment: What works . Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 60, 48-58. Elsevier BV.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/j.rasd.2019.01.006 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2912222411
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  42. Melissa Scott , Ben Milbourn , Marita Falkmer , Melissa H. Black , Sven Bölte , Alycia Halladay et al. (2019). Factors impacting employment for people with autism spectrum disorder: A scoping review . Autism, 23(4), 869-901. SAGE Publications.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/1362361318787789 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2887381641
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  43. National Autistic Society (2016), “Government must tackle the autism employment gap”, available at: www.autism.org.uk/get-involved/media-centre/news/2016-10-27-employmentgap.aspx (accessed 21 March 2022).
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  44. National Autistic Society (2019), “Managing money”, available at: www.autism.org.uk/what-we-do/professional-development/training-and-conferences/online/managing-money (accessed 21 March 2022).
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  45. Nichols, A., Mitchell, J. and Lindner, S. (2013), “Consequences of Long-Term unemployment”, Working Paper, Urban Institute, Washington, DC.
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  46. Office for National Statistics (2021), “Outcomes for disabled people in the UK: 2020”, available at: www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/healthandsocialcare/disability/articles/outcomesfordisabledpeopleintheuk/2020#employment (accessed 21 March 2022).
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  47. Wagner, M. Newman, L. Cameto, R. Garza, N. and Levine, P. (2005), “After high school: a first look at the postschool experiences of youth with disabilities”, available at: https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED494935.pdf (accessed 21 March 2022).
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  48. Wong, P. S. S. (2018), “Untapped potential: why we need to welcome more adults with autism into the workforce”, available at: www.smartcompany.com.au/people-human-resources/untapped-potential-welcome-adults-autism-workforce/ (accessed 21 March 2022).
    Type: Other
    Crossref