A sociological treatment exploring the medical model in relation to the neurodiversity movement with reference to policy and practice

This publication is included in the Autistic Autism Scholarship Project. one author of this publication is identified as autistic in the project.

About the autistic author marker

Metadata sources used for this reference

OpenAlex Crossref OpenCitations
Learn more about the sources used

Casanova, E. & Widman, C. J. (2021). A sociological treatment exploring the medical model in relation to the neurodiversity movement with reference to policy and practice. Evidence & Policy, 17(2), 363-381. https://doi.org/10.1332/174426421x16142770974065

Publication date: 30 Mar 2021 Added to AutiHub: 14 Sep 2026 Type: Article Article language: English
Publisher source (DOI) OpenAlex source

This publication is integrated into AutiHub through:

Authors

Publication authors
2
Publication authors identified as autistic
1 / 2 (50.0%)
  1. Emily L. Casanova *
  2. Cheryl J. Widman

Abstract

Background: The Medical Model of disability focuses on diagnosed conditions. It is used in policy particularly to categorise people. This enables predictions and forecasting about the size of policy needs but tends to homogenise disability representations, assigning a negative evaluation to illness that may be irrespective of patho-anatomical correlates. The Social Model considers disability as imposed by society through attitudes and barriers. The Neurodiversity Model is a type of social and cultural model with biological implications; it states that differences in brain and behaviour lie on a non-pathological spectrum. Critics say this whitewashes lived experience. Policymakers may devalue the Neurodiversity Model’s origins within activist neurodiverse communities. The model that policy and practice decision makers use has fundamental effects on their impacts. Aims and objectives: The Medical and Neurodiversity Models are reviewed in reference to their politicisation as ways to characterise disability, and identity politics. The implications socially and for disability policy and practice and evidence use are considered. Key conclusions: Both models fall short in addressing the needs of the broad community of the disabled, yet both have useful features. We propose the Biological Gradient Model (BGM), which integrates scientific theory while avoiding pathology-based concepts and value-laden judgments concerning ‘deficiency’. Its usefulness is demonstrated; it resolves some of the ambiguity and tensions that exist in the way people with disability are viewed by different groups and treated within policy. It has the potential to reduce issues of partial representation, where the voices of those who cannot self-advocate may be less heard.

Bibliography cited by this reference

Cited references are imported from external metadata sources when they are available. The list may be partial.

Cited bibliography overview

These indicators describe the bibliography cited by this publication. An author name is counted each time it appears in one cited reference, so the same person can be counted more than once. Names not yet linked to an author already present in AutiHub are treated as unknown, not as non-autistic. Last computed: 20 Sep 2026 01:01.

Cited references
111
With a DOI
82
Without a DOI, from raw bibliography text
27
2 / 111 (1.8%) cited references include at least one author identified as autistic.
References with data to complete
19 / 111 (17.1%)
References with detected author names
93 / 111 (83.8%)
Without detected author names
18
Without a structured title
1
Without a stable identifier
24
References with raw author names still to review
0
References with external metadata lookup issues
4
These indicators apply to cited references displayed on this page, after technical duplicates have been merged. A reference without a DOI can still support author statistics when a title and author names are available.
Author names detected in the cited bibliography
186
From DOI or external metadata
186
From validated raw bibliography text
0
Raw names already validated
0
Raw names still to review
0
14 / 186 (7.5%) names are linked to an author already present in AutiHub. 172 / 186 (92.5%) names are not yet linked.
Names linked to a person identified as autistic
2 / 186 (1.1%)
Calculated across all author names detected in the cited bibliography. Among names linked to an author already present in AutiHub: 2 / 14 (14.3%). Distinct people identified as autistic: 2 / 182 (1.1%).
  1. Richard K. Scotch (2000). Models of Disability and the Americans with Disabilities Act . PubMed, 62(1 Pt B), 1313-21. Berkeley Journal of Employment and Labor Law.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.15779/z38v91g OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W11088590
    OpenAlex
  2. Susan M. Allen , Ann C. Petrisek , Linda L. Laliberte (2001). Problems in doctor-patient communication: The case of younger women with breast cancer . Critical Public Health, 11(1), 39-58. Informa UK Limited.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1080/09581590010028246 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W1970033997
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  3. Christina Nicolaidis (2012). What Can Physicians Learn from the Neurodiversity Movement? AMA Journal of Ethics, 14(6), 503-510. American Medical Association (AMA).
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1001/virtualmentor.2012.14.6.oped1-1206 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2142098199
    AutiHub · Documentation center Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  4. M M Tompkins , E J Basgall , E Zamrini , W D Hill (1997). Apoptotic-like changes in Lewy-body-associated disorders and normal aging in substantia nigral neurons . PubMed, 150(1), 119.
    Type: Article OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W138616876
    Crossref OpenAlex
  5. Judith Allsop , Linda Mulcahy (1998). Maintaining Professional Identity: Doctors’ Responses to Complaints . Sociology of Health & Illness, 20(6), 802-824. Wiley.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1111/1467-9566.00130 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2143584815
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  6. Jet B. Muskens , Fleur P. Velders , Wouter Staal (2017). Medical comorbidities in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorders and attention deficit hyperactivity disorders: a systematic review . European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 26(9), 1093-1103. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s00787-017-1020-0 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2730169795
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  7. Janice Blanchard , Nicole Lurie (2004). RESPECT: patient reports of disrespect in the healthcare setting and its impact on care . PubMed, 53(9), 721.
    Type: Article OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W145119872
    Crossref OpenAlex
  8. D. Anastasiou , J. M. Kauffman (2013). The Social Model of Disability: Dichotomy between Impairment and Disability . Journal of Medicine and Philosophy, 38(4), 441-459. Oxford University Press (OUP).
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1093/jmp/jht026 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2018124923
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  9. Susan Hayes , Phil Shackell , Pat Mottram , Rachel Lancaster (2007). The prevalence of intellectual disability in a major UK prison . British Journal of Learning Disabilities, 35(3), 162-167. Wiley.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-3156.2007.00461.x OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2058332398
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  10. (1955). SOCIAL SCIENCE AND MEDICINE . Medical Journal of Australia, 1(24), 883-884. AMPCo.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.5694/j.1326-5377.1955.tb38334.x OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W272287569
    OpenAlex
  11. Armstrong T (2011). The Power of Neurodiversity: Unleashing the Advantages of Your Differently Wired Brain . The Power of Neurodiversity: Unleashing the Advantages of Your Differently Wired Brain.
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  12. Mike Oliver (2013). The social model of disability: thirty years on . Disability & Society, 28(7), 1024-1026. Informa UK Limited.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1080/09687599.2013.818773 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2087269573
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  13. Barbara Ehrenreich , Deirdre English (2005). For Her Own Good: Two Centuries of the Experts’ Advice to Women .
    Type: Book OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W601795864
    Crossref OpenAlex
  14. Armstrong, T. (2017). Neurodiversity: the future of special education?
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  15. Robert Chapman * , Walter Veit (2020). Representing the Autism Spectrum . The American Journal of Bioethics, 20(4), 46-48. Informa UK Limited.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1080/15265161.2020.1730495 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3013050796
    AutiHub · Autistic Autism Scholarship Project Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  16. Alfred M. Sadler , Transplantation—A. Case (1984). 4 Hastings center studies .
    Type: Article OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W939517967
    OpenAlex
  17. Austin, R.D. (2017). Neurodiversity as a competitive advantage .
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  18. Morton Ann Gernsbacher (2017). Editorial Perspective: The use of person‐first language in scholarly writing may accentuate stigma . Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 58(7), 859-861. Wiley.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1111/jcpp.12706 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2626162561
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  19. Lennart Nordenfelt , B. Ingemar B. Lindahl (1984). Health, Disease, and Causal Explanations in Medicine . Springer Netherlands.
    Type: Book DOI: 10.1007/978-94-009-6283-5 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W1522924745
    OpenAlex
  20. Margaret Bauman (2010). Medical Comorbidities in Autism: Challenges to Diagnosis and Treatment . Neurotherapeutics, 7(3), 320-327. Elsevier BV.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/j.nurt.2010.06.001 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W1987839624
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  21. Judith Cockram (2005). People With an Intellectual Disability in the Prisons . Psychiatry, Psychology and Law, 12(1), 163-173. Informa UK Limited.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1375/pplt.2005.12.1.163 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2103528325
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  22. Wil H. E. Buntinx , Robert L. Schalock (2010). Models of Disability, Quality of Life, and Individualized Supports: Implications for Professional Practice in Intellectual Disability . Journal of Policy and Practice in Intellectual Disabilities, 7(4), 283-294. Wiley.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1111/j.1741-1130.2010.00278.x OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W1554250757
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  23. Justin J. Waring (2005). Beyond blame: cultural barriers to medical incident reporting . Social Science & Medicine, 60(9), 1927-1935. Elsevier BV.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2004.08.055 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W1966149969
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  24. Milo Careaga , Takeshi Murai , Melissa D. Bauman (2017). Maternal Immune Activation and Autism Spectrum Disorder: From Rodents to Nonhuman and Human Primates . Biological Psychiatry, 81(5), 391-401. Elsevier BV.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2016.10.020 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2534869317
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  25. Faye Ginsburg , Rayna Rapp (2013). Disability Worlds . Annual Review of Anthropology, 42(1), 53-68. Annual Reviews.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1146/annurev-anthro-092412-155502 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4249934921
    OpenAlex OpenCitations
  26. Björn Hofvander , Richard Delorme , Pauline Chaste , Agneta Nydén , Elisabet Wentz , Ola Ståhlberg et al. (2009). Psychiatric and psychosocial problems in adults with normal-intelligence autism spectrum disorders . BMC Psychiatry, 9(1), 1. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1186/1471-244x-9-35 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W1970834718
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  27. Casanova, M.F. (2015). The neurodiversity movement: lack of trust .
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  28. Max C. Petersen , Gerald I. Shulman (2018). Mechanisms of Insulin Action and Insulin Resistance . Physiological Reviews, 98(4), 2133-2223. American Physiological Society.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00063.2017 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2886865853
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  29. Josephine Ocloo (2010). Harmed patients gaining voice: Challenging dominant perspectives in the construction of medical harm and patient safety reforms . Social Science & Medicine, 71(3), 510-516. Elsevier BV.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2010.03.050 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W1972209115
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  30. Casanova, E.L. (2018). The roles environment plays in autism susceptibility .
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  31. John M. Kelley , Gordon Kraft-Todd , Lidia Schapira , Joe Kossowsky , Helen Riess (2014). The Influence of the Patient-Clinician Relationship on Healthcare Outcomes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials . PLoS ONE, 9(4), e94207. Public Library of Science (PLoS).
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0094207 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W1976256107
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  32. Casanova, M.F. (2016). Editorial: Leo Kanner, the anti-psychiatry movement and neurodiversity .
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  33. Patrick W. Corrigan , Benjamin G. Druss , Deborah A. Perlick (2014). The Impact of Mental Illness Stigma on Seeking and Participating in Mental Health Care . Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 15(2), 37-70. SAGE Publications.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/1529100614531398 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2109297286
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  34. Jan G. van den Tweel , Clive R. Taylor (2010). A brief history of pathology . Virchows Archiv, 457(1), 3-10. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s00428-010-0934-4 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W1976773050
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  35. Tom Shakespeare (2004). Social models of disability and other life strategies . Scandinavian Journal of Disability Research, 6(1), 8-21. Stockholm University Press.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1080/15017410409512636 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2024043792
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  36. Charlton, J.I. (2000). Nothing about Us without Us: Disability Oppression and Empowerment .
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  37. Kathleen M. Griffiths , Bradley Carron-Arthur , Alison Parsons , Russell Reid (2014). Effectiveness of programs for reducing the stigma associated with mental disorders. A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials . World Psychiatry, 13(2), 161-175. Wiley.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1002/wps.20129 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2019025429
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  38. Kipling D. Williams , Steve A. Nida (2014). Ostracism and Public Policy . Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 1(1), 38-45. SAGE Publications.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/2372732214549753 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2000182713
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  39. Kit Curtius , Nicholas A. Wright , Trevor A. Graham (2017). Evolution of Premalignant Disease . Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine, 7(12), a026542. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory.
    Type: Preprint DOI: 10.1101/cshperspect.a026542 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2612956013
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  40. Christopher Kliewer (1999). Nothing About Us Without Us: Disability Oppression and Empowerment . Mental Retardation, 37(2), 168-169. American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (AAIDD).
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1352/0047-6765(1999)037 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2009768307
    OpenAlex
  41. Conyers, L. (2003). Disability culture: a cultural model of disability .
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  42. Rachel Cooper (2017). Where’s the problem? Considering Laing and Esterson’s account of schizophrenia, social models of disability, and extended mental disorder . Theoretical Medicine and Bioethics, 38(4), 295-305. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s11017-017-9413-0 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2563491888
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  43. Patrick W. Corrigan , Scott B. Morris , Patrick J. Michaels , Jennifer D. Rafacz , Nicolas Rüsch (2012). Challenging the Public Stigma of Mental Illness: A Meta-Analysis of Outcome Studies . Psychiatric Services, 63(10), 963-973. American Psychiatric Association Publishing.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1176/appi.ps.201100529 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2105795344
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  44. Peter Sedgwick (1973). Illness: Mental and Otherwise . The Hastings Center Studies, 1(3), 19. JSTOR.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.2307/3527464 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4301627546
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  45. Mary Langan (2011). Parental voices and controversies in autism . Disability & Society, 26(2), 193-205. Informa UK Limited.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1080/09687599.2011.544059 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2044983927
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  46. Joanne Coyle (1999). Exploring the meaning of ‘dissatisfaction’ with health care: the importance of ‘personal identity threat’ . Sociology of Health & Illness, 21(1), 95. Wiley.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1111/1467-9566.t01-1-00144 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2136954337
    Crossref OpenAlex
  47. Paul K. Longmore , Hugh Gregory Gallagher , Harlan Lane , Peter L. Tyor , Leland V. Bell (1987). Uncovering the Hidden History of People with Disabilities . Reviews in American History, 15(3), 355. JSTOR.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.2307/2702029 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4322703502
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  48. Richard K. Scotch (1989). Politics and policy in the history of the disability rights movement . The Milbank Quarterly, 67(2), 380. JSTOR.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.2307/3350150 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2059184882
    Crossref OpenAlex
  49. Matthew S. McCoy , Emily Y. Liu , Amy S. F. Lutz , Dominic Sisti (2020). Ethical Advocacy Across the Autism Spectrum: Beyond Partial Representation . The American Journal of Bioethics, 20(4), 13-24. Informa UK Limited.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1080/15265161.2020.1730482 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3012817899
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  50. B.W Wall , K.L Appelbaum (1999). Disabled doctors: the insurance industry seeks a second opinion . Journal of Clinical Forensic Medicine, 26(1), 7. Elsevier BV.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/s1353-1131(99)90195-5 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2070940050
    Crossref OpenAlex
  51. Engelhardt, H.T. (1984). Clinical problems and the concept of disease .
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  52. Robert M. Veatch (1973). The Medical Model: Its Nature & Problems . The Hastings Center Studies, 1(3), 59. JSTOR.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.2307/3527466 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4322703505
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  53. Teresa Iacono (2006). Ethical challenges and complexities of including people with intellectual disability as participants in research . Journal of Intellectual & Developmental Disability, 31(3), 173-179. Informa UK Limited.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1080/13668250600876392 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2077536131
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  54. Iain Ferguson (2018). Making Sense of Madness: Revisiting R.D. Laing . Critical and Radical Social Work, 6(1), 67-76. Bristol University Press.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1332/204986018x15199226335060 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2790330387
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  55. S. E. Bullard , M. Griss , S. Greene , A. Gekker (2013). Encyclopedia of Clinical Neuropsychology . Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 28(1), 92-92. Oxford University Press (OUP).
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1093/arclin/acs103 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2086444177
    OpenAlex
  56. Ron Paterson (2013). Not so random: patient complaints and ‘frequent flier’ doctors . BMJ Quality & Safety, 22(7), 525-527. BMJ.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1136/bmjqs-2013-001902 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2161393134
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  57. Wencheng Yang , Lee Cyn Ang , Michael J. Strong (2005). Tau protein aggregation in the frontal and entorhinal cortices as a function of aging . Developmental Brain Research, 156(2), 127-138. Elsevier BV.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/j.devbrainres.2005.02.004 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2092087320
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  58. Ginsburg, F. (2013). Disability worlds .
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  59. Amy Stedman , Briana Taylor , Michael Erard , Christine Peura , Matthew Siegel (2019). Are Children Severely Affected by Autism Spectrum Disorder Underrepresented in Treatment Studies? An Analysis of the Literature . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 49(4), 1378-1390. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s10803-018-3844-y OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2904918904
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  60. David J. Hess (2004). Medical modernisation, scientific research fields and the epistemic politics of health social movements . Sociology of Health & Illness, 26(6), 695-709. Wiley.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1111/j.0141-9889.2004.00414.x OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2156939933
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  61. Peter J. Hotez (2020). Combating antiscience: are we preparing for the 2020s? PLOS Biology, 18(3), e30000683. Public Library of Science (PLoS).
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3000683 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3013335168
    Crossref OpenAlex
  62. Herbert Wechsler (1962). On Culpability and Crime: The Treatment of Mens Rea in the Model Penal Code . The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 339(1), 24-41. SAGE Publications.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/000271626233900104 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2144903348
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  63. Robert M. Joseph , Thomas M. O'Shea , Elizabeth N. Allred , Tim Heeren , Deborah Hirtz , Nigel Paneth et al. (2017). Prevalence and associated features of autism spectrum disorder in extremely low gestational age newborns at age 10 years . Autism Research, 10(2), 224-232. Wiley.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1002/aur.1644 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2404408606
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  64. David Riedl , Gerhard Schüßler (2017). The Influence of Doctor-Patient Communication on Health Outcomes: A Systematic Review . Zeitschrift für Psychosomatische Medizin und Psychotherapie, 63(2), 131-150. Walter de Gruyter GmbH.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.13109/zptm.2017.63.2.131 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2623094994
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  65. Ronald Mac Keith (1968). JOURNAL OF CHILD PSYCHOLOGY AND PSYCHIATRY AND ALLIED DISCIPLINES . Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 10(6), 796-796. Wiley.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8749.1968.tb02984.x OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2154199692
    OpenAlex
  66. Kapp, S.K. (2019). Introduction .
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  67. G Neale (2004). Disputing Doctors: the Socio-Legal Dynamics of Complaints about Medical Care . Quality and Safety in Health Care, 13(3), 239-239. BMJ.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1136/qshc.2003.008490 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2160229632
    OpenAlex
  68. Laing, R.D. (n.d.). The Politics of the Family, and Other Essays .
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  69. (2015). American Journal of Pathology . American Journal Of Pathology. Elsevier BV.
    Type: Other DOI: 10.2353/ajpath OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2296293854
    OpenAlex
  70. Sidney Ditzion , Robert Jay Lifton , Alan P. Grimes , William L. O'Neill , Charles E. Winick (1969). The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. American Quarterly, 21(1), 125. JSTOR.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.2307/2710778 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2323930558
    OpenAlex
  71. Lubet, S. (2018). The medical community is changing its mind on chronic fatigue syndrome. Why aren’t insurers?
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  72. Julie Netherland , Helena B. Hansen (2016). The war on drugs that wasn’t: wasted whiteness, ‘dirty doctors’, and race in media coverage of prescription opioid misuse . Culture, Medicine, and Psychiatry, 40(4), 664. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1007/s11013-016-9496-5 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2412905884
    Crossref OpenAlex
  73. Mulcahy, L. (2003). Disputing Doctors: The Socio-legal Dynamics of Complaints About Medical Care .
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  74. Gary L. Albrecht (2005). The Sociology of Health and Illness . In The SAGE Handbook of Sociology (pp. 267-283). SAGE Publications Ltd.
    Type: Book chapter DOI: 10.4135/9781848608115.n16 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2486726383
    OpenAlex
  75. Thelma McCormack , R. D. Laing (1973). The Politics of the Family and Other Essays. Contemporary Sociology, 2(1), 22. SAGE Publications.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.2307/2062099 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2514873388
    OpenAlex
  76. C. Nascimento , A. T. Di Lorenzo Alho , C. Bazan Conceição Amaral , R. E. P. Leite , R. Nitrini , W. Jacob‐Filho et al. (2018). Prevalence of transactive response DNA-binding protein 43 (TDP-43) proteinopathy in cognitively normal older adults: Systematic review and meta-analysis . Neuropathology and Applied Neurobiology, 44(3), 286. Wiley.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1111/nan.12430 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2743281712
    Crossref OpenAlex
  77. (2013). Theoretical Medicine and Bioethics . Metamedicine. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Type: Other DOI: 10.1007/11017.1573-1200 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2526359762
    OpenAlex
  78. (2015). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy . Choice Reviews Online, 52(07), 52-3406-52-3406. American Library Association.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.5860/choice.187763 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2529466265
    OpenAlex
  79. Parsons, T. (1951). The Social System . The Social System.
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  80. (2014). Psychological Science in the Public Interest . Gothic.net. Wiley.
    Type: Other DOI: 10.1111/(issn)1539-6053 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2586742252
    OpenAlex
  81. Jean M. Lynch (2013). D isability and S ociety .
    Type: Article DOI: 10.4324/9781315634227.cheleven OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2593378493
    OpenAlex
  82. Robinson, C. (2016). Boys club in medicine .
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  83. Russell, G. (2019). Critiques of the neurodiversity movement .
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  84. (2017). Annual Review of Anthropology . Annual Review of Anthropology. Annual Reviews.
    Type: Other DOI: 10.1146/anthro.672 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2738472227
    OpenAlex
  85. Scotch, R.K. (2003). Models of disability and the Americans with Disabilities Act .
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  86. (2013). Culture, Medicine, and Psychiatry . Culture Medicine and Psychiatry. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Type: Other DOI: 10.1007/11013.1573-076x OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2739506888
    OpenAlex
  87. Julia Sinclair (1993). Sinclair, J. (1993) Don’t Mourn for Us, Blog, https://www.autreat.com/dont_mourn.html , (Accessed: 11 Aug 2020).
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  88. Singer, J. (2017). Neurodiversity: The Birth of an Idea . Neurodiversity: The birth of an idea.
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  89. Solomon, A. (1994). Defiantly Deaf, New York Times Magazine .
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  90. Peter Conrad (2000). The Sociology of Health and Illness .
    Type: Book OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2987898659
    OpenAlex
  91. Swaine, Z. (2011). Medical Model .
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  92. Alan J. Gelenberg (1985). Biological Psychiatry . Psychosomatics, 26(12), 949. Elsevier BV.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/s0033-3182(85)72762-4 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3023206195
    OpenAlex
  93. (2017). Educational Leadership . Routledge.
    Type: Book DOI: 10.4324/9781315429816 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3090455045
    OpenAlex
  95. Christina Papadimitriou (2025). Disability and Society . In Disability Studies. SAGE Publications Ltd.
    Type: Book chapter DOI: 10.4135/9781036232689.n4 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3209692704
    OpenAlex
  96. Wasserman, D. (2016). Disability: definitions, models, experience .
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  97. (2020). The Journal of Family Practice . Frontline Medical Communications, Inc..
    Type: Other DOI: 10.12788/jfp OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4200592891
    OpenAlex
  98. (2010). British Journal of Learning Disabilities . British Journal of Learning Disabilities. Wiley.
    Type: Other DOI: 10.1111/(issn)1468-3156 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4210719183
    OpenAlex
  99. (1998). The journal of medicine and philosophy . Revista Panamericana de Salud Pública, 3(6), 430-431. FapUNIFESP (SciELO).
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1590/s1020-49891998000600019 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4214812983
    OpenAlex
  100. Wilson, B. (2020). Seven tech companies that hire autistic adults .
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  101. (2013). Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Type: Other DOI: 10.1007/10803.1573-3432 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4232007456
    OpenAlex
  102. (1920). "Physiological Reviews" . Science, 52(1350), 459-460. American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS).
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1126/science.52.1350.459 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4233380225
    OpenAlex
  103. Pritchard, J. J. (1975). NEUROPATHOLOGY AND APPLIED NEUROBIOLOGY . Medical Journal of Australia, 2(6), 203-203. AMPCo.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.5694/j.1326-5377.1975.tb105751.x OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4234474054
    OpenAlex
  104. Kieft, Robert H (2017). Reviews in American History . The SHAFR Guide Online. Walter de Gruyter GmbH.
    Type: Dataset DOI: 10.1163/2468-1733_shafr_sim010020073 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4234620952
    OpenAlex
  105. (1980). Developmental brain research . Brain Research, 192(2), 303. Elsevier BV.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/0006-8993(80)90884-7 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4239952875
    OpenAlex
  106. (2010). Journal of Policy and Practice in Intellectual Disabilities . Journal of Policy and Practice in Intellectual Disabilities. Wiley.
    Type: Other DOI: 10.1111/(issn)1741-1130 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4240556221
    OpenAlex
  107. Zoë Swaine (2011). Medical Model . In Encyclopedia of Clinical Neuropsychology (pp. 1542-1543). Springer New York.
    Type: Book chapter DOI: 10.1007/978-0-387-79948-3_2131 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4241930252
    OpenAlex
  108. (2014). Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine . Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory.
    Type: Preprint DOI: 10.1101/cshperspect_med OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4253425744
    OpenAlex
  109. (1994). Harvard business review . Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 94(9), 1062-1063. Elsevier BV.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/0002-8223(94)92216-0 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4297081765
    OpenAlex
  110. Heath Pillen (2023). Critical Public Health . In Handbook of Social Sciences and Global Public Health (pp. 127-142). Springer International Publishing.
    Type: Book chapter DOI: 10.1007/978-3-031-25110-8_10 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4386576557
    OpenAlex
  111. (2021). The Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law. PubMed.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.29158/jaapl.210028-20 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4394767300
    OpenAlex