Recommendations for Increasing Sample Diversity in Autism Research: Lessons from Multisensory Studies

Vassall, S. G., Shragge, I., Srinivasan, H. B., Quackenbush, W. J., & Wallace, M. T. (2025). Recommendations for Increasing Sample Diversity in Autism Research: Lessons from Multisensory Studies. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-025-07022-4

Publication date: 23 Aug 2025 Added to AutiHub: 9 Jul 2026 Type: Article Article language: English

This publication is integrated into AutiHub through:

Authors

Publication authors
5
Publication authors identified as autistic
1 / 5 (20.0%)

Abstract

In 2024, the United States House of Representatives passed ruling H.R.7213, the Autism CARES Act, which, if passed by the Senate, will reauthorize funding to extant national autism research programs, with an emphasis on including autistic individuals significantly affected by the disorder. This shift toward research inclusion across the autism spectrum clearly highlights the lack of representation in the past. In the field of multisensory integration, it is well documented that there are changes to how autistic individuals integrate stimuli across different sensory modalities, and the relationship between atypical (multi)sensory processing and the core features of autism is well documented. However, much of this research utilizes samples of autistic individuals with high cognitive, verbal, and functional ability. The purpose of this review is to draw attention to disparities in the samples used in multisensory research in autism. We conducted a systematic review of all studies examining multisensory function in autism to date and provide basic descriptive statistics of the studies. We observed that the vast majority of multisensory research is focused on young, low support needs autistic individuals, with very little investigation in autistic individuals with high support needs (HSN). Additionally, we found investigation into the effect of sex or comorbidities to be lacking. We propose methodological improvements addressing gaps in the research in order to make multisensory research in autism more inclusive to HSN autistics.

Bibliography cited by this reference

Cited references are imported from external metadata sources when they are available. The list may be partial.

Bibliography inclusion overview

These indicators describe the cited bibliography imported for this publication. Cited-reference metrics use the cited-reference total as denominator. Cited-author metrics state whether they use all cited-author occurrences or only occurrences linked to authors already integrated in the AutiHub database. They use cached links between cited authors and authors integrated in the AutiHub database. Last computed: 16 Aug 2026 11:31.

Cited references
52
Total cited references integrated for this publication.
Cited references with an identified autistic author
1 / 52 (1.9%)
Cited author occurrences identified as autistic
1 / 289 (0.3%)
Among occurrences linked to AutiHub author records: 1 / 56 (1.8%). Distinct cited authors identified as autistic: 1 / 273 (0.4%).
Cited author occurrences linked to AutiHub author records
56 / 289 (19.4%)
Distinct linked cited authors: 48 / 273 (17.6%)
Linked cited-author occurrences not identified as autistic
55 / 56 (98.2%)
Among linked cited-author occurrences only. Across all cited-author occurrences: 55 / 289 (19.0%). Distinct linked cited authors not identified as autistic: 47 / 48 (97.9%).
  1. C. Rattaz , C. Michelon , A. Baghdadli (2015). Symptom severity as a risk factor for self‐injurious behaviours in adolescents with autism spectrum disorders . Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 59(8), 730-741. Wiley.
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  2. Brett S. Abrahams , Daniel H. Geschwind (2008). Advances in autism genetics: on the threshold of a new neurobiology . Nature Reviews Genetics, 9(5), 341-355. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1038/nrg2346 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2080287250
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  3. Lillian N. Stiegler , Rebecca Davis (2010). Understanding Sound Sensitivity in Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorders . Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 25(2), 67-75. SAGE Publications.
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  4. Julian Maclaren , Michael Herbst , Oliver Speck , Maxim Zaitsev (2013). Prospective motion correction in brain imaging: A review . Magnetic Resonance in Medicine, 69(3), 621-636. Wiley.
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  5. González Moreno, Andrés Santiago (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders . American Psychiatric Association.
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  6. Roberto Canitano , Roberto Palumbi (2021). Excitation/Inhibition Modulators in Autism Spectrum Disorder: Current Clinical Research . Frontiers in Neuroscience, 15, 753274-753274. Frontiers Media SA.
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  7. Karen Blackmon (2015). Structural MRI biomarkers of shared pathogenesis in autism spectrum disorder and epilepsy . Epilepsy & Behavior, 47, 172-182. Elsevier BV.
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  8. Autism Collaboration, Accountability, Research, Education, and Support Act of 2024, H. R. 7213, 118th Congress 2 (2024). https://www.congress.gov/index.php/bill/118th-congress/house-bill/7213
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  9. Denise DuBois , Erin Lymer , Barbara Gibson , Pushpal Desarkar , Emily Nalder (2017). Assessing Sensory Processing Dysfunction in Adults and Adolescents with Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Scoping Review . Brain Sciences, 7(8), 108. MDPI AG.
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  10. Sara Jane Webb , Raphael Bernier , Heather A. Henderson , Mark H. Johnson , Emily J.H. Jones , Matthew D Lerner et al. (2015). Guidelines and Best Practices for Electrophysiological Data Collection, Analysis and Reporting in Autism . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 45(2), 425-443. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  11. Ayelet Ben-Sasson , Liat Hen , Ronen Fluss , Sharon A. Cermak , Batya Engel-Yeger , Eynat Gal (2009). A Meta-Analysis of Sensory Modulation Symptoms in Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorders . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 39(1), 1-11. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  12. Alex Lau-Zhu , Michael P.H. Lau , Gráinne McLoughlin (2019). Mobile EEG in research on neurodevelopmental disorders: Opportunities and challenges . Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 36, 100635. Elsevier BV.
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  13. Jennifer Richler , Marisela Huerta , Somer Bishop , Catherine Lord (2010). Developmental trajectories of restricted and repetitive behaviors and interests in children with autism spectrum disorders . Development and Psychopathology, 22(1), 55-69. Cambridge University Press (CUP).
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  14. Jacek Kolacz , Melissa Raspa , Keri J. Heilman , Stephen W. Porges (2018). Evaluating Sensory Processing in Fragile X Syndrome: Psychometric Analysis of the Brain Body Center Sensory Scales (BBCSS) . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 48(6), 2187-2202. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  15. Sven Bölte , Janina Neufeld , Peter B. Marschik , Zachary J. Williams *Autistic author. Learn more… , Louise Gallagher , Meng-Chuan Lai (2023). Sex and gender in neurodevelopmental conditions . Nature Reviews Neurology, 19(3), 136-159. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  16. Aikaterini Giannadou , Myles Jones , Megan Freeth , Andrea C. Samson , Elizabeth Milne (2022). Investigating neural dynamics in autism spectrum conditions outside of the laboratory using mobile electroencephalography . Psychophysiology, 59(4), e13995. Wiley.
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  17. Melissa Kirkovski , Peter G. Enticott , Paul B. Fitzgerald (2013). A Review of the Role of Female Gender in Autism Spectrum Disorders . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 43(11), 2584-2603. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  18. Meng-Chuan Lai , Michael Lombardo , Bonnie Auyeung , Bhismadev Chakrabarti , Simon Baron-Cohen (2015). Sex/Gender Differences and Autism: Setting the Scene for Future Research . Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 54(1), 11-24. Elsevier BV.
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  19. Carissa J. Cascio , Jennifer H. Foss‐Feig , Courtney P. Burnette , Jessica L. Heacock , Akua A. Cosby (2012). The rubber hand illusion in children with autism spectrum disorders: delayed influence of combined tactile and visual input on proprioception . Autism, 16(4), 406-419. SAGE Publications.
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  20. Matthew J. Maenner , Zachary Warren , Ashley Robinson Williams , Esther Amoakohene , Amanda V. Bakian , Deborah A. Bilder et al. (2023). Prevalence and Characteristics of Autism Spectrum Disorder Among Children Aged 8 Years — Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring Network, 11 Sites, United States, 2020 . MMWR. Surveillance Summaries, 72(2), 1-14. Centers for Disease Control MMWR Office.
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  21. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2022). Autism and developmental disabilities monitoring (ADDM) network. https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/addm.html
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  22. Caroline Richards , Christopher Jones , Laura Groves , Jo Moss , Chris Oliver (2015). Prevalence of autism spectrum disorder phenomenology in genetic disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis . The Lancet Psychiatry, 2(10), 909-916. Elsevier BV.
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  23. Caitlin C. Clements , Marley W. Watkins , Robert T. Schultz , Benjamin E. Yerys (2020). Does the Factor Structure of IQ Differ Between the Differential Ability Scales (DAS‐II) Normative Sample and Autistic Children? Autism Research, 13(7), 1184-1194. Wiley.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1002/aur.2285 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W3008767798
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  24. Elise Robinson , Paul Lichtenstein , Henrik Anckarsäter , Francesca Happé , Angelica Ronald (2013). Examining and interpreting the female protective effect against autistic behavior . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 110(13), 5258-5262. National Academy of Sciences.
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  25. Lisa A. Croen , Ousseny Zerbo , Yinge Qian , Maria L Massolo , Steve Rich , Stephen Sidney et al. (2015). The health status of adults on the autism spectrum . Autism, 19(7), 814-823. SAGE Publications.
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  26. Michael J. Crosse , John J. Foxe , Katy Tarrit , Edward G. Freedman , Sophie Molholm (2022). Resolution of impaired multisensory processing in autism and the cost of switching sensory modality . Communications Biology, 5(1), 601. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  27. Brittany N. Hand , Amber M Angell , Lauren Harris , Laura Arnstein Carpenter (2020). Prevalence of physical and mental health conditions in Medicare-enrolled, autistic older adults . Autism, 24(3), 755-764. SAGE Publications.
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  28. John J. Foxe , Sophie Molholm , Victor A. Del Bene , Hans-Peter Frey , Natalie Russo , Daniella Blanco et al. (2015). Severe Multisensory Speech Integration Deficits in High-Functioning School-Aged Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and Their Resolution During Early Adolescence . Cerebral Cortex, 25(2), 298-312. Oxford University Press (OUP).
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  29. Dean D’Souza , Hana D’Souza , Mark H. Johnson , Annette Karmiloff-Smith (2016). Audio-visual speech perception in infants and toddlers with Down syndrome, fragile X syndrome, and Williams syndrome . Infant Behavior and Development, 44, 249-262. Elsevier BV.
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  30. Nikou L. Damestani , Owen O'Daly , Ana Beatriz Solana , Florian Wiesinger , David J. Lythgoe , Simon Hill et al. (2021). Revealing the mechanisms behind novel auditory stimuli discrimination: An evaluation of silent functional MRI using looping star . Human Brain Mapping, 42(9), 2833-2850. Wiley.
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  31. Mattia Galigani , Carlotta Fossataro , Patrizia Gindri , Massimiliano Conson , Francesca Garbarini (2022). Monochannel Preference in Autism Spectrum Conditions Revealed by a Non-Visual Variant of Rubber Hand Illusion . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 52(10), 4252-4260. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  32. Ryan A. Stevenson , Magali Segers , Susanne Ferber , Morgan D. Barense , Stephen Camarata , Mark T. Wallace (2016). Keeping time in the brain: Autism spectrum disorder and audiovisual temporal processing . Autism Research, 9(7), 720-738. Wiley.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1002/aur.1566 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2163264302
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  33. Kelsey S Dickson , Megan Ledoux Galligan , Ho Lok (2022). Short report: A quantitative methodological review of participant characteristics in the literature testing mental health interventions for youth with autism spectrum disorder . Autism, 26(4), 995-1000. SAGE Publications.
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  34. Samantha E Schulz , Ryan A Stevenson (2019). Sensory hypersensitivity predicts repetitive behaviours in autistic and typically-developing children . Autism, 23(4), 1028-1041. SAGE Publications.
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  35. Helen Tager-Flusberg , Daniela Plesa Skwerer , Robert M Joseph , Brianna Brukilacchio , Jessica Decker , Brady Eggleston et al. (2017). Conducting research with minimally verbal participants with autism spectrum disorder . Autism, 21(7), 852-861. SAGE Publications.
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  36. Jacob I. Feldman , Margaret Cassidy , Yupeng Liu , Anne V. Kirby , Mark T. Wallace , Tiffany G. Woynaroski (2020). Relations between Sensory Responsiveness and Features of Autism in Children . Brain Sciences, 10(11), 775. MDPI AG.
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  37. Jacob I. Feldman , Julie G. Conrad , Wayne Kuang , Alexander Tu , Yupeng Liu , David M. Simon et al. (2022). Relations Between the McGurk Effect, Social and Communication Skill, and Autistic Features in Children with and without Autism . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 52(5), 1920-1928. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  38. Allison Jack , Kevin A. Pelphrey (2017). Annual Research Review: Understudied populations within the autism spectrum – current trends and future directions in neuroimaging research . Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 58(4), 411-435. Wiley.
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  39. Juan Zhang , Yaxuan Meng , Jinbo He , Yutao Xiang , Chenggang Wu , Shibin Wang et al. (2019). McGurk Effect by Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder and Typically Developing Controls: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 49(1), 34-43. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  40. M. Heald , Dawn Adams , C. Oliver (2020). Profiles of atypical sensory processing in Angelman, Cornelia de Lange and Fragile X syndromes . Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 64(2), 117-130. Wiley.
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  41. Michelle M. Hughes , Kelly A. Shaw , Monica DiRienzo , Maureen S. Durkin , Amy Esler , Jennifer Hall-Lande et al. (2023). The Prevalence and Characteristics of Children With Profound Autism, 15 Sites, United States, 2000-2016 . Public Health Reports®, 138(6), 971-980. SAGE Publications.
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  42. Danilo Maziero , Carlo Rondinoni , Theo Marins , Victor Andrew Stenger , Thomas Ernst (2020). Prospective motion correction of fMRI: Improving the quality of resting state data affected by large head motion . NeuroImage, 212, 116594. Elsevier BV.
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  43. Ginny Russell , Will Mandy , Daisy Elliott , Rhianna White , Tom Pittwood , Tamsin Ford (2019). Selection bias on intellectual ability in autism research: a cross-sectional review and meta-analysis . Molecular Autism, 10(1), 9. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  44. Sara Lukmanji , Sofiya A. Manji , Sandra Kadhim , Khara M. Sauro , Elaine C. Wirrell , Churl-Su Kwon et al. (2019). The co-occurrence of epilepsy and autism: A systematic review . Epilepsy & Behavior, 98(Pt A), 238-248. Elsevier BV.
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  45. Daria Kostanian , Anna Rebreikina , Victoria Voinova , Olga Sysoeva (2023). Effect of presentation rate on auditory processing in Rett syndrome: event-related potential study . Molecular Autism, 14(1), 40. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  46. Einat Waizbard-Bartov , Meghan Miller (2023). Does the severity of autism symptoms change over time? A review of the evidence, impacts, and gaps in current knowledge . Clinical Psychology Review, 99, 102230. Elsevier BV.
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  47. Xian Liu , Xin Sun , Caihong Sun , Mingyang Zou , Yiru Chen , Junping Huang et al. (2022). Prevalence of epilepsy in autism spectrum disorders: A systematic review and meta-analysis . Autism, 26(1), 33-50. SAGE Publications.
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  48. A. Ostrolenk , Valérie Courchesne (2023). Examining the validity of the use of ratio IQs in psychological assessments . Acta Psychologica, 240, 104054. Elsevier BV.
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  49. Guiomar Niso , Elena Romero , Jeremy T. Moreau , Alvaro Araujo , Laurens R. Krol (2023). Wireless EEG: A survey of systems and studies . NeuroImage, 269, 119774. Elsevier BV.
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  50. Jeannette Schaeffer , Muna Abd El-Raziq , Elena Castroviejo , Stephanie Durrleman , Sandrine Ferré , Ileana Grama et al. (2023). Language in autism: domains, profiles and co-occurring conditions . Journal of Neural Transmission, 130(3), 433-457. Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  51. Anastasia Neklyudova , Kirill Smirnov , Anna Rebreikina , Olga Martynova , Olga Sysoeva (2022). Electrophysiological and Behavioral Evidence for Hyper- and Hyposensitivity in Rare Genetic Syndromes Associated with Autism . Genes, 13(4), 671. MDPI AG.
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  52. Bernhard Suter , Davut Pehlivan , Muharrem Ak , Holly K. Harris , Ariel M. Lyons‐Warren (2024). Sensory experiences questionnaire unravels differences in sensory profiles between MECP2 ‐related disorders . Autism Research, 17(4), 775-784. Wiley.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1002/aur.3112 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4392372165
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations