Cracks in the Continuum: A Critical Analysis of Least Restrictive Environment for Students with Significant Support Needs

Metadata sources used for this reference

OpenAlex Crossref OpenCitations
Learn more about the sources used

Mccabe, K. M., Ruppar, A., Kurth, J. A., Mcqueston, J. A., Johnston, R., & Toews, S. G. (2020). Cracks in the Continuum: A Critical Analysis of Least Restrictive Environment for Students with Significant Support Needs. Teachers College Record: The Voice of Scholarship in Education, 122(5), 1-28. https://doi.org/10.1177/016146812012200511

Publication date: 1 May 2020 Added to AutiHub: 9 Aug 2026 Type: Article Article language: English
OpenAlex source Publisher source (DOI)

This publication is integrated into AutiHub through:

Authors

Publication authors
6
Publication authors identified as autistic
1 / 6 (16.7%)
  1. Katie M. Mccabe
  2. Andrea Ruppar
  3. Jennifer A. Kurth
  1. Jessica A. Mcqueston *
  2. Russell Johnston
  3. Samantha Gross Toews

Abstract

Background/Context Federal laws require equitable access to education for students with disabilities through educational placement in the least restrictive environment (LRE). However, research has determined students with significant support needs (SSN) are overrepresented in segregated educational placements. Focus of Study This study explores justifications of LRE placement decisions for students with SSN through a critical qualitative analysis. We evaluated how individualized education program (IEP) teams interpret LRE and justify placement decisions for students with SSN. Additionally, we sought to understand how the interpretation of LRE permits or restricts access to general education for students with SSN. Population Students with SSN are those who require support across multiple domains and often have disabilities in the categories of autism, intellectual disability, multiple disabilities, and deaf-blindness. Research Design We used a qualitative methodology situated in a critical geography framework. Data were derived from the LRE statements found in IEPs of students with SSN. Each statement included in this study was used to identify the three power relationship spaces derived from critical geography theory: utopia, dystopia, and heterotopia. Findings Three types of placement decisions were identified. Students with SSN were most often offered conditional placements and less frequently closed or open placements. Rationales for LRE decisions revealed barriers to accessing general education contexts related to hidden power dynamics, attempts to maintain social norms, and the use of ambiguous terminology. Data analysis also revealed that LRE justifications generate special education heterotopias that create illusive access to the general education context and content for students with SSN. Conclusions/Recommendations The application of critical theory assists in understanding the continued overrepresentation of students with SSN in placements that limit access to general education. Findings from this study suggest the discontinuation of the continuum of special education placements to dismantle the inequitable structures of special education for students with SSN.

Bibliography cited by this reference

Cited references are imported from external metadata sources when they are available. The list may be partial.

Bibliography inclusion overview

These indicators describe the cited bibliography imported for this publication. Cited-reference metrics use the cited-reference total as denominator. Cited-author metrics state whether they use all cited-author occurrences or only occurrences linked to authors already integrated in the AutiHub database. They use cached links between cited authors and authors integrated in the AutiHub database. Last computed: 16 Aug 2026 11:31.

Cited references
54
Total cited references integrated for this publication.
Cited references with an identified autistic author
1 / 54 (1.9%)
Cited author occurrences identified as autistic
1 / 133 (0.8%)
Among occurrences linked to AutiHub author records: 1 / 15 (6.7%). Distinct cited authors identified as autistic: 1 / 114 (0.9%).
Cited author occurrences linked to AutiHub author records
15 / 133 (11.3%)
Distinct linked cited authors: 6 / 114 (5.3%)
Linked cited-author occurrences not identified as autistic
14 / 15 (93.3%)
Among linked cited-author occurrences only. Across all cited-author occurrences: 14 / 133 (10.5%). Distinct linked cited authors not identified as autistic: 5 / 6 (83.3%).
  1. Julie Causton‐Theoharis , George Theoharis , Fernanda Tebexreni Orsati , Meghan Cosier (2011). Does Self-Contained Special Education Deliver on Its Promises? A Critical Inquiry into Research and Practice. Journal of special education leadership, 24(2), 61-78.
    Type: Article OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W110790085
    OpenAlex
  2. ALFREDO ARTILES (2003). Special Education's Changing Identity: Paradoxes and Dilemmas in Views of Culture and Space . Harvard Educational Review, 73(2), 164-202. Harvard Education Publishing Group.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.17763/haer.73.2.j78t573x377j7106 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W1828840769
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  3. Chelsea A. Blackburn Cohen (2018). Globalization, Higher Education, and Crisis . In Critical Theory and Qualitative Data Analysis in Education (pp. 123-137). Routledge.
    Type: Book chapter DOI: 10.4324/9781315158860-9 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2948870377
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  4. Judith K. Voress (2014). Remedial and Special Education . Encyclopedia of Special Education. Wiley.
    Type: Other DOI: 10.1002/9781118660584.ese2045 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W1535739672
    OpenAlex
  5. Jessica Bacon , Carrie E. Rood , Beth A. Ferri (2016). Promoting Access through Segregation: The Emergence of the “Prioritized Curriculum” Class . Teachers College Record: The Voice of Scholarship in Education, 118(14), 1-22. SAGE Publications.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/016146811611801408 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2591019328
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  6. Rachelle Winkle-Wagner , Ashley N. Gaskew , Jamila Lee-Johnson (2018). The Missing Link in Data Analysis . In Critical Theory and Qualitative Data Analysis in Education (pp. 3-13). Routledge.
    Type: Book chapter DOI: 10.4324/9781315158860-1 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2948471333
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  7. Carspecken, Phil Francis (1996). Critical ethnography in educational research: a theoretical and practical guide . Choice Reviews Online, 34(02), 34-1057-34-1057. American Library Association.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.5860/choice.34-1057 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W1606217168
    Crossref OpenAlex
  8. Diane Lea Ryndak , Debbie Taub , Cheryl M. Jorgensen , Jean Gonsier-Gerdin , Katrina Arndt , Janet Sauer et al. (2014). Policy and the Impact on Placement, Involvement, and Progress in General Education . Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 39(1), 65-74. SAGE Publications.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/1540796914533942 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2146362451
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  9. Johnny Saldana (2025). The Coding Manual for Qualitative Researchers . SAGE Publications Ltd.
    Type: Book DOI: 10.4135/9781036235611 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W1803273808
    OpenAlex
  10. Ellen Brantlinger , Robert Jimenez , Janette Klingner , Marleen Pugach , Virginia Richardson (2005). Qualitative Studies in Special Education . Exceptional Children, 71(2), 195-207. SAGE Publications.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/001440290507100205 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2064062458
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  11. Michel Foucault , Jay Miskowiec (1986). Of Other Spaces . Diacritics, 16(1), 22. JSTOR.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.2307/464648 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2316739529
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  12. Jennifer A. Kurth , Kiara Born , Hailey Love (2016). Ecobehavioral Characteristics of Self-Contained High School Classrooms for Students With Severe Cognitive Disability . Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 41(4), 227-243. SAGE Publications.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/1540796916661492 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2517357727
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  13. Andrea Ruppar , Janet S. Gaffney (2011). Individualized Education Program Team Decisions: A Preliminary Study of Conversations, Negotiations, and Power . Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 36(1-2), 11-22. SAGE Publications.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.2511/rpsd.36.1-2.11 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W1968304821
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  14. Erik W. Carter , Jennifer Asmus , Colleen K. Moss , Elizabeth E. Biggs , Dan M. Bolt , Tiffany L. Born et al. (2016). Randomized Evaluation of Peer Support Arrangements to Support the Inclusion of High School Students With Severe Disabilities . Exceptional Children, 82(2), 209-233. SAGE Publications.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/0014402915598780 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2268981678
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  15. Harold Kleinert , Elizabeth Towles-Reeves , Rachel Quenemoen , Martha Thurlow , Lauren Fluegge , Laura Weseman et al. (2015). Where Students With the Most Significant Cognitive Disabilities Are Taught . Exceptional Children, 81(3), 312-328. SAGE Publications.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/0014402914563697 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2126641012
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  16. Jennifer A. Kurth , Mary E. Morningstar , Elizabeth B. Kozleski (2014). The Persistence of Highly Restrictive Special Education Placements for Students With Low-Incidence Disabilities . Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 39(3), 227-239. SAGE Publications.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/1540796914555580 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W1977802446
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  17. Causton-Theoharis J. N. (2011). bibr7-016146812012200511 Journal of Special Education Leadership, 24, 61.
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  18. Keith J. Hyatt , John Filler (2011). LRE re-examined: misinterpretations and unintended consequences . International Journal of Inclusive Education, 15(9), 1031-1045. Informa UK Limited.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1080/13603116.2010.484509 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W1993062439
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  19. Meghan Cosier , Julie Causton-Theoharis , George Theoharis (2013). Does Access Matter? Time in General Education and Achievement for Students With Disabilities . Remedial and Special Education, 34(6), 323-332. SAGE Publications.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/0741932513485448 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2162617142
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  20. Maynard C. Reynolds (1962). A Framework for Considering Some Issues in Special Education . Exceptional Children, 28(7), 367-370. SAGE Publications.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/001440296202800705 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2577513181
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  21. Stanley C. Trent , Alfredo J. Artiles , Carol Sue Englert (1998). Chapter 8: From Deficit Thinking to Social Constructivism: A Review of Theory, Research, and Practice in Special Education . Review of Research in Education, 23(1), 277-307. American Educational Research Association (AERA).
    Type: Article DOI: 10.3102/0091732x023001277 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W1996501382
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  22. Evelyn Deno (1970). Special Education as Developmental Capital . Exceptional Children, 37(3), 229-237. SAGE Publications.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/001440297003700306 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2791029399
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  23. Andrea Ruppar , Carly A. Roberts , Amy J. Olson (2018). Is it all about loving the kids? Perceptions about expertise in special education . Teaching and Teacher Education, 71, 319-328. Elsevier BV.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1016/j.tate.2018.02.001 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2792872662
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  24. Denzin N. K. (2015). Critical qualitative inquiry: Foundations and futures . Critical qualitative inquiry: Foundations and futures, 31.
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  25. Robert Rueda , Margaret A. Gallego , Luis C. Moll (2000). The Least Restrictive Environment . Remedial and Special Education, 21(2), 70-78. SAGE Publications.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/074193250002100202 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2080794336
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  26. Education for All Handicapped Children Act, Pub. L. No. 94-142, § 601(c) (1975).
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  27. Federico R. Waitoller , Subini Ancy Annamma (2017). Taking a Spatial Turn in Inclusive Education . In The Wiley Handbook of Diversity in Special Education (pp. 23-44). Wiley.
    Type: Book chapter DOI: 10.1002/9781118768778.ch2 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2588253857
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  28. Diane Lea Ryndak , Margaret A. Moore , Ann-Marie Orlando , Monica Delano (2008). Access to the General Curriculum: The Mandate and Role of Context in Research-Based Practice for Students with Extensive Support Needs . Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 34(1), 199-213. SAGE Publications.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.2511/rpsd.33.4.199 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2081927567
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  29. Robert J. Helfenbein , Edward O. Buendía (2017). Critical Geography of Education . In Deterritorializing/Reterritorializing (pp. 27-40). SensePublishers.
    Type: Book chapter DOI: 10.1007/978-94-6300-977-5_2 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2612186136
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  30. Jennifer A. Kurth , Ann M. Mastergeorge (2010). Academic and Cognitive Profiles of Students with Autism: Implications for Classroom Practice and Placement. Int J Spec Educ, 25(2), 8.
    Type: Article OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2097985383
    OpenAlex
  31. Mary E. Morningstar , Jennifer A. Kurth , Paul E. Johnson (2017). Examining National Trends in Educational Placements for Students With Significant Disabilities . Remedial and Special Education, 38(1), 3-12. SAGE Publications.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/0741932516678327 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2555028945
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  32. Diane Ryndak , Lewis B. Jackson , Julia M. White (2013). Involvement and Progress in the General Curriculum for Students With Extensive Support Needs: K–12 Inclusive-Education Research and Implications for the Future . Inclusion, 1(1), 28-49. Informa UK Limited.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1352/2326-6988-1.1.028 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2141236178
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  33. Individuals With Disabilities Education Improvement Act, H. R. 1350, Pub. L. No. 108-446 (2004).
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  34. Elizabeth B. Kozleski (2017). The Uses of Qualitative Research . Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 42(1), 19-32. SAGE Publications.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/1540796916683710 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2590048854
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  35. Jennifer A. Kurth , Kristin J. Lyon , Karrie A. Shogren (2015). Supporting Students With Severe Disabilities in Inclusive Schools . Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 40(4), 261-274. SAGE Publications.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/1540796915594160 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2184537248
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  36. Steven J. Taylor (1988). Caught in the Continuum: A Critical Analysis of the Principle of the Least Restrictive Environment . Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 13(1), 41-53. SAGE Publications.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/154079698801300105 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4245947728
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  37. Kurth J. A. (2010). bibr20-016146812012200511 International Journal of Special Education, 25, 8.
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  38. Stuart Aitken , Edward W. Soja (1998). Thirdspace: Journeys to Los Angeles and Other Real-and-Imagined Places . Geographical Review, 88(1), 148. JSTOR.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.2307/215881 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2329683546
    OpenAlex
  39. Adai A. Tefera , Cecilia Rios Aguilar , Alfredo J. Artiles , Catherine Kramarczuk Voulgarides , Veronica Vélez (2017). Developing a Critical Space Perspective in the Examination of the Racialization of Disabilities . In Deterritorializing/Reterritorializing (pp. 191-207). SensePublishers.
    Type: Book chapter DOI: 10.1007/978-94-6300-977-5_12 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2613064368
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  40. Janet Story Sauer , Cheryl M. Jorgensen (2016). Still Caught in the Continuum: A Critical Analysis of Least Restrictive Environment and Its Effect on Placement of Students With Intellectual Disability . Inclusion, 4(2), 56-74. Informa UK Limited.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1352/2326-6988-4.2.56 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2408965826
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  41. Kurth J. A. (2018). bibr22-016146812012200511 The Journal of Special Education.
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  42. Jennifer A. Kurth , Andrea Ruppar , Samantha Gross Toews , Katie M. Mccabe , Jessica A. Mcqueston * , Russell Johnston (2019). Considerations in Placement Decisions for Students With Extensive Support Needs: An Analysis of LRE Statements . Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 44(1), 3-19. SAGE Publications.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1177/1540796918825479 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2912970872
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  43. Mary E. Morningstar , Jennifer A. Kurth (2017). Status of Inclusive Educational Placement for Students With Extensive and Pervasive Support Needs . Inclusion, 5(2), 83-93. Informa UK Limited.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.1352/2326-6988.5.2.83 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W2621994028
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  44. Ruppar A. L. (2016). bibr28-016146812012200511 Remedial and Special Education.
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  45. Roger Slee (2011). The Irregular School . Routledge.
    Type: Book DOI: 10.4324/9780203831564 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4237522272
    Crossref OpenAlex OpenCitations
  46. Saldaña J. (2009). The coding manual for qualitative researchers . The coding manual for qualitative researchers.
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  47. (2022). International Journal of Special Education . Science Research Society.
    Type: Other DOI: 10.52783/ijse OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4205630653
    OpenAlex
  48. Soja E. (1989). Postmodern geographies: The reassertion of space in critical social theory . Postmodern geographies: The reassertion of space in critical social theory.
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  49. (2019). Journal of Special Education . Journal of Special Education. National Institute of Special Education.
    Type: Other DOI: 10.34249/jse OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4230916887
    OpenAlex
  50. Soja E. (1996). Thirdspace: Journeys to Los Angeles and other real-and-imagined places . Thirdspace: Journeys to Los Angeles and other real-and-imagined places.
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  51. James Eflin , Edward W. Soja (1990). Postmodern Geographies: The Reassertion of Space in Critical Social Theory . Geographical Review, 80(4), 448. JSTOR.
    Type: Article DOI: 10.2307/215855 OpenAlex: https://openalex.org/W4302396406
    OpenAlex
  52. United States Department of Education. (2017). Thirty-ninth annual report to Congress on implementation of the Individuals With Disabilities Education Act.
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  53. Waitoller F. R. (2017). The spatial search to understand and address educational inequity to inform praxis . The spatial search to understand and address educational inequity to inform praxis, 147.
    Type: Other
    Crossref
  54. White J. M. (2018). How states interpret the LRE clause of IDEA: A policy analysis . How states interpret the LRE clause of IDEA: A policy analysis.
    Type: Other
    Crossref