Development of a Goal Attainment Scale (GAS) outcome measure for clinical interventional studies in paediatric autism

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Staunton, H., McIver, T., Tillmann, J., Clinch, S., Hanrahan, V., Ewens, B., Averius, C., Barsdorf, A. I., Baranger, A., Berry‐Kravis, E., Charman, T., Neerland, H., Singer, A., Ventola, P., Williams, Z. J., & Barrett, L. (2025). Development of a Goal Attainment Scale (GAS) outcome measure for clinical interventional studies in paediatric autism. Autism, 29(12), 2975-2990. https://doi.org/10.1177/13623613251349904

Publication date: 25 Jun 2025 Added to AutiHub: 7 Jul 2026 Type: Article Article language: English
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Authors

Publication authors
16
Publication authors identified as autistic
1 / 16 (6.2%)
  1. Hannah Staunton
  2. Tammy McIver
  3. Julian Tillmann
  4. Susanne Clinch
  5. Vivienne Hanrahan
  6. Bethany Ewens
  1. Caroline Averius
  2. Alexandra I. Barsdorf
  3. Aurélie Baranger
  4. Elizabeth Berry‐Kravis
  5. Tony Charman
  6. Haraldt Neerland
  1. Alison Singer
  2. Pamela Ventola
  3. Zachary J. Williams *
  4. Louise Barrett

Abstract

Existing clinical outcome assessments (COAs) have limitations in capturing treatment effects in autism for those who choose to enrol in clinical research. Some COAs include items that are not relevant or equally important to all autistic people; others are not sufficiently comprehensive. Goal Attainment Scaling (GAS), which measures individual experiences against personalised goals, has been proposed as a more individualised and change-sensitive approach to assess outcomes in clinical studies. We developed a novel GAS measure for use in paediatric autism studies based on qualitative interviews with autistic adolescents, parents and clinicians. Applying a methodologically robust approach, concept elicitation interviews ( N = 40) were first conducted to understand and generate a bank of personalised goals, followed by cognitive debriefing interviews (N = 39) to provide feedback on a draft GAS manual. Twenty-five personalised goals were generated for core autistic characteristics (communication, socialisation, restrictive and repetitive behaviours), as well as associated characteristics and impacts. In debriefing interviews, adolescents and parents supported the use of personalised goals and clinicians recommended using such goals in clinical studies and practice. In conclusion, GAS measures may overcome some of the challenges with existing outcome measures and complement future outcome measurement strategies for clinical studies in paediatric autism. Lay Abstract Autistic children and adolescents and their parents support the use of personalised goals as a way of measuring the effects of new treatments for those who choose to enrol in clinical research. Health professionals also recommend using personalised goals in both their research and in treatment plans. Establishing personalised goals, a process known as Goal Attainment Scaling (GAS), means identifying goals according to the needs of the individual, as opposed to using standardised outcomes for all participants. Autism is a condition with many different characteristics and degrees of impact, and the tools commonly used to measure treatment effects, known as clinical outcome assessments (COAs), have limitations. Some COAs, for example, include outcomes that are not relevant to all autistic people; others do not include enough outcomes to represent the experience of all autistic people. GAS, which measures individual experiences against personalised goals, may be complementary to existing COAs to provide an individualised or tailor-made tool to evaluate outcomes as a result of an intervention. We developed a GAS measure for researchers/health professionals to use in studies with autistic children and adolescents. Our research was based on a total of 40 interviews with adolescents, parents and clinicians, asking open-ended questions about how children and adolescents experience autism in order to understand and create a bank of potential personalised goals. We then conducted 39 further interviews to ask them for their feedback on the first draft of the measure. In the end, we compiled a list of 25 personalised goals related to core and associated characteristics of autistic children and adolescents, including goals related to communication, socialisation, and restricted and repetitive behaviours. We hope that these findings will help to improve the measurement of meaningful outcomes for autistic children and adolescents in future studies.

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Cited references
49
Total cited references integrated for this publication.
Cited references with an identified autistic author
3 / 49 (6.1%)
Cited author occurrences identified as autistic
6 / 295 (2.0%)
Among occurrences linked to AutiHub author records: 6 / 67 (9.0%). Distinct cited authors identified as autistic: 6 / 273 (2.2%).
Cited author occurrences linked to AutiHub author records
67 / 295 (22.7%)
Distinct linked cited authors: 56 / 273 (20.5%)
Linked cited-author occurrences not identified as autistic
61 / 67 (91.0%)
Among linked cited-author occurrences only. Across all cited-author occurrences: 61 / 295 (20.7%). Distinct linked cited authors not identified as autistic: 50 / 56 (89.3%).
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